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'/^, ^.^^i'-^ PRIZE ESSAY. 

THE TEACHER'S MANUAL: 

BEING 

AN EXPOSITION 

OF 

AN EFFICIENT AND ECONOMICAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 



THE "WANTS OF A FREE PEOPLE. 



BY THOMAS H. PALMER, A. M. 



" First, must the dead-Utter of ' Education' own itself dead, and drop, piece- 
meal, into dust, if the living spirit of ' Education,' freed from this, its charnel 
house, is to arise on us, and with new healing on its wings." — Carlvle. 



<.. 



BOSTON: 

MARSH, CAPEN, LYON, AND WEBB. 

1840. 









Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840, by 

Marsh, Capen, Lyon, and Webb, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 



4 J 






EDUCATION PRESS. 



^O PREFACE. 






f 



My main objects, in the present Treatise, are fourfold : 

I. To show the inequality, inefficiency, and wasteful- 
ness of our present system of education : or, to use the 
words of the motto to the title, to show that it is a mere 
*' dead letter," and cause it to ^^ own itself dead, and 
drop, piecemeal, into dust," so as to enable its "living 
spirit, freed from this, its charnel-house, to arise on us, 
with new healing on its wings." 

II. To show that an equal, complete, and efficient, 
system would be productive of an immense saving, both 
of time, and money : 

First, by dividing the schools into two classes, so as to 
have all the primary schools kept permanently ^ in place 
of for short terms, and the central, or high schools, during 
the Winter. 

Secondly, by thus providing situations for a body of 
permanent, experienced, femaie teachers, looking solely to 
their profession for a support, who should take the place 
of the inexperienced, young girls, who now have recourse 
to teaching, for mere temporary purposes. 

Thirdly, by the establishment of Normal Schools, the 

time and resources of which should not be squandered in 

teaching what can readily be acquired elsewhere ; but 

which should confine their attention to real desiderata, and 

1* 



PREFACE. 



be discontinued, as totally unnecessary, as soon as good 
models should be spread over the land. 

Fourthly, by providing libraries of school-books as 
well as of books for circulation, and by establishing a 
system of exchanges among the districts. 

III. To examine, thoroughly, the whole system of 
education, going into the most minute details, wherever 
it is found defective or injurious, and passing, more rapid- 
ly, over such parts as require little or no amendment. 

IV. To make a commencement on the hitherto-neglec- 
ted subject of Morals, for primary schools, and to place 
Discipline on its proper foundation, the Conscience. 

Many other topics are treated of, incidentally, such 
as the division of towns into Districts, the laying out 
of School lots, erecting, lighting, warming, &c., of 
Schoolhouses, town and county Conventions of Teach- 
ers, &c. ; the whole being designed to present a complete 
and liberal System of Education, suited to the wants of 
a Free People, in whose hands the whole system of gov- 
ernment may be safely entrusted. 

For many years, I have been in the habit of entering, 
in a commonplace book, my own thoughts, as well as 
extracts from the publications of the day, on the subject 
of Education. As this was commenced, long before I 
had any intention of writing on the subject, I have sel- 
dom used any discriminative marks, between my own 
ideas and those of others. It is not improbable, there- 
fore, that, in this Essay, in which, of course, I made free 
use of my commonplace book, I may sometimes uncon- 
sciously have used the words or ideas of others, without 
giving them proper credit. Should this prove to be the 
case, in a few instances, I trust the writers and the public 
will accept of this apology. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Page 

Introductory, 9 

CHAPTER II. 
Who are our Schoolmasters ? 12 

CHAPTER III. 
Physical Education, 20 

CHAPTER IV. 
Intellectual Education, 24 

CHAPTER V. 
Intellectual Education, Continued, 31 

CHAPTER VI. 
Moral Education, 50 

CHAPTER VII. 
Recapitulation, 54 



PART II. 

CHAPTER I. 
Introductory, 57 

CHAPTER II. 
Physical Education, 59 



8 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

Page 

Physical Education, Continued, 70 

CHAPTER IV. 

Physical Education, Continued, 92 

CHAPTER V. 
Intellectual Education, 94 

CHAPTER VI. 
Intellectual Education, Continued, . . . . . 100 

CHAPTER VII. 

Intellectual Education, Continued, 112 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Intellectual Education, Continued, 140 

CHAPTER IX. 
Intellectual Education, Continued, 182 

CHAPTER X. 
Intellectual Education, Concluded, 190 

CHAPTER XI. 
Moral Education, 193 

CHAPTER XII. 

Moral Education, Continued, 258 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Conclusion, 259 



THE TEACHER'S MANUAL 



CHAPTER I. 

INTROD UC TORY. 

•' I call, therefore, a complete and generous education, that which fits 
a man to perform, justly, skilfully, and magnanimously, all the offices, 
both private and public, of peace and war." — Milton. 

In the following pages, it is proposed to inquire, what 
are the requisites for a good education for the whole peo- 
ple, and what are the best means of attaining them ; in 
other words, to present the picture of a good district and 
town school ; or, as they are sometimes called, a primary 
and high school. It is also proposed to inquire into the 
best means of equalizing the benefits of education ; or, 
more properly speaking, of bringing the means of a thor- 
ough education within the reach of every child in the 
community. As having an important bearing on these 
subjects, the local situation and internal arrangement of 
schoolhouses will also be taken into consideration. The 
J^ormal School, or Seminary for Teachers, will also claim 
its due share of attention. 

All this, however, will not be sufficient for the attain- 
ment of the great object, which at present occupies so 
much of the attention of many modern philanthropists, — 
the physical, intellectual, and moral, improvement of the 
community, through the medium of schools. The great 
body of society, particularly in New England, are per- 
fectly satisfied with their present system. It is generally 



10 

supposed, that the people owe all that shrewdness and 
intelligence for which they are so remarkable, and all 
their industrious and moral habits, to the District School. 
Hence, it is a very natural inference, that the system can- 
not be so faulty and imperfect, as is frequently represent- 
ed ; and that, in fact, it would be rather a hazardous ex- 
periment, in any way to meddle with it. Before, therefore, 
we can expect to succeed in producing any beneficial 
changes, especially where these changes are of a radical 
nature, it is necessary, clearly and explicitly to show the 
fallacy of these views. One of the most important ob- 
jects of this treatise, then, will be, an exposition of the 
deficiencies and defects of the system now in use, and a 
demonstration of the fallacy, which would refer all, or 
even most, of our moral and intellectual worth to School 
Education. 

Let it, however, be distinctly understood, that all the 
deficiencies, defects, and evils, which will be pointed out, 
do not exist in every public school. Our system of in- 
struction is at present in a state of transition. Ten years 
ago, the primary schools were conducted in a uniform 
routine. In discipline, books, arrangement of studies, 
and mode of tuition, all were aHke. But, so far is this 
from being the case now, that it would probably be diffi- 
cult to find two schools conducted on exactly similar prin- 
ciples, on any one of these points. Hence, no descrip- 
tion can possibly suit every case. The only practicable 
method of tracing out and eradicating all the defects of 
our present system of education, then, is to present a 
complete and correct picture of the schools in their worst 
state ^ and to call upon each teacher or parent to apply 
such features only, as are strictly applicable to his mode 
of tuition. 

For instance, if there be any school in which reading 
is taught intellectually rather than mechanically ; where 
the child has learnt to read in an easy, unaffected man- 
ner ; his tones all natural, and his delivery exactly as if he 
were talking on the same subject with his brothers and 
sisters ; if, from first to last, he has understood every 
word he has uttered, before his lesson was finished ; if he 



INTRODUCTORY. 11 

has never read any thing, without being able to close his 
book, and give a clear, intelligible statement of it ; then, 
the remarks on readings in this treatise, have no reference 
whatever to that school. But, let them not, therefore, 
be condemned, as inapphcable. There are schools, where 
the pupils are not so favored ; where they have been 
taught to read in a stiff, unnatural manner, without any 
attention to the sense ; to utter, like parrots, mere sounds, 
without bestowing a thought on the ideas they are intended 
to convey. It is only to such schools, that all the remarks 
on reading are meant to apply. 

Between these two kinds of schools, there are various 
grades. And it is to be hoped, that no teacher, because 
every remark on any one subject is not appHcable to him, 
will, therefore, reject the whole. As was remarked in 
speaking of the more perfect school, if the whole be not 
applicable, let that only be used, which will suit the case. 
Nothing more was meant to be apphed to that school. 

Similar remarks apply to all the branches treated of, 
whether they relate to physical, intellectual, or moral cul- 
ture. In the case of morals, for instance, if the pupils 
have been trained to feel , distinctly, the happiness of vir- 
tue, the misery of vice ; the delights arising from general 
sympathy and the social affections, and the sordid nature 
of selfishness ; to see, clearly, the beauty of placability, 
forbearance, kindness, and good temper ; the hatefulness 
of moroseness, malevolence, and cruelty ; the advantages 
of industry, perseverance, economy, and temperance ; the 
disadvantages of indolence, instability, extravagance, and 
intemperance ; the complacency arising from love to God, 
obedience to his commands, and resignation to his will ; 
it is probable, that the teacher of such a school may not 
derive much personal advantage from the remarks on the 
deficiencies of the moral department of the schools. Such 
a teacher, however, loill not think them unnecessary. 
He will know, that, however happy may be the excep- 
tions, the field of morality generally lies almost wholly 
untilled ; full of little else than poisonous plants and foul 
weeds ; and he will prize them, even though they may not 
apply to his own highly-favored school. 



12 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

CHAPTER 11. 

WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 

It is very important, especially at the present moment, 
that we should have a clear, distinct idea of the real value 
of our primary schools. Let us, then, carefully and can- 
didly inquire, what knowledge they do impart to the mass 
of the people, to those who have no further advantages of 
school education, leaving, of course, entirely out of view 
those gifted minds which are scattered sparsely over 
every country, who, rise, in spite of every impediment, 
and to whom, in fact, mankind are chiefly indebted, for 
their steady progress from barbarism to civilization. 

1st. They teach Reading. This art may be consid- 
ered in two points of view : 1 . Reading for others, or 
reading aloud. Many years are commonly spent in the 
attempt to gain this accomplishment ; and very few make 
any progress, worthy of the name. For where shall we 
find a reader, who can keep up an interest in an audience 
for half an hour ? It would appear, then, that the time, 
labor, and money, expended in learning to read alo'ud. is 
little better than thrown away. 2. Reading for ourselves, 
or silent reading. Have the pupils of the district school 
acquired this, to any good purpose ? Has it opened to 
them the door of science ? Do they make any practical 
use of it .'' Are we a reading people ? Alas ! I fear 
these questions must be answered in the negative. The 
boundless stores of knowledge, instead of being at the 
command of every member of the community, remain as 
completely a sealed book, as if still shut up in the learned 
languages. Some, it is true, do contrive to spell out a 
little in the newspaper, and others regularly read their 
Bible. But is it to any good purpose ? Is their reading 
more than a form ? Have we not reason to fear, that an 
accurate examination would show, that it is little else than 
a muttering or enunciation of mere sounds, and that, under 
the heavy labor of bringing them forth, the sense generally 
escapes ? 



WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 13 

2d. They teach Orthography. Spelling has nothing 
to do with our present purpose, which relates only to the 
heart and intellect. It will be fully noticed, in another 
chapter. 

3d. They teach t^n^/imeiic. The/orm of this science 
is taught in our schools, but its true principles, buried 
under a multiplicity of mechanical rules, escape the search 
of the scholar. He generally forgets the rules a short 
time after leaving school, though a sufficient knowledge is 
generally retained for the common business-transactions 
of the farmer and mechanic. Should more than this be 
necessary, it must be learned elsewhere. What wonder- 
ful returns for the labor of years ! more might be acquired 
in three months, under an intelligent instructor who should 
pursue a rational course. The great advantage, also, which 
might be derived from the study of this science, the ac- 
quisition of habits of reasoning and patient investigation, 
is entirely lost. 

4th. They teach Geography. But for what purpose ? 
A knowledge of geography is of exceedingly little use to 
any but readers, to whom, indeed, it is indispensable. 
Those who do not read will forget almost the whole in a 
very short time. 

5th. They teach English Grammar , which claims the 
high merit of enabling its students to speak and write the 
English language with purity and propriety. But do those 
who have studied it speak whh propriety ? Is their lan- 
guage, in any respect, different from that of those around 
them, who have never opened a book on grammar ? As 
to writing, the critical eye of a grammarian may, it is 
true, detect an error of syntax ; but other sources must 
be resorted to, for the art of composition.^ For this, the 
structure of sentences, not the mere relations of words, 
must be understood, and the mind must be stored with 
ideas. Neither of these can be derived from grammar. 
Such are the studies that occupy the chief part of the 
time in the primary schools, with, sometimes, in addition, 
a little writing, and a smattering of natural history. And 
can it be possible, that the intelligence and sterling worth, 
for which the community are distinguished, are derived 
2 



14 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

from such scanty sources as these ? The idea is prepos- 
terous. Whence, then, are they derived ? An attentive 
observation of the progress of a child, from birth to matu- 
rity, will, it is beheved, solve the problem. Let us make 
the attempt. 

Man's true nature is spiritual. He is " a living soul^^^ 

clothed, FOR THE PURPOSES OF EDUCATION, With a 

fleshly garment. 

At birth, he possesses, along with the seeds of every 
virtue, and its opposite vice, a capacity for the most un- 
bounded knowledge : but all these, as yet, lie dormant, 
undeveloped. There is one exception, however, which 
is, as it were, the germ, or rather the foundation, of all his 
future acquisitions. By instinct, which is nothing less than 
God working within him,* he has the power of moving 
certain muscles. He can cry, suck, swallow, open his 
eyes. Hunger, which has been denominated the sixth 
sense, is the main cause of all these motions. 

By imperceptible degrees, his muscular powers are 
extended. In some three or four months, by the exer- 
cise of his hands, he acquires faint notions of form and 
distance : in other words, he has learned to see ; and 
now begins to recognise the affectionate being, whose 
unremitting tenderness watches over his safety, and hourly 
nourishes him from her own bosom. Delighted with his 
acquisitions, his thirst for knowledge is continually on the 
increase. Every object, within his reach, is eagerly seized 
and examined. His eyes, his ears, his hands, his mouth, 
are in constant requisition. During his waking hours, he 
cannot be kept still a moment. To the unobservant, he 
seems as if inspired with an intense spirit of mischief, an 
ardent love of destruction. But nothing can be more 
contrary to the fact. All these movements are caused 
by the divine love of knowledge, as yet neither broken 

* " The bee works most geometrically, without any knowledge of 
geometry ; somewhat like a child, who, by turning the hand of an 
organ, makes good music, without any knowledge of music. The art 
is not in the child, but in him who made the organ. In like manner, 
when the bee makes its comb so geometrically, the geometry is not in 
the bee, but in that great Geometrician, who made the bee, and made 
all things, in number, weight, and measure." — Reid. 



WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 15 

by disappointment, nor nnisled by the false philosophy that 
deals in nothing but empty sounds. In the strange world 
in which he finds himself, every thing is a marvel ; the 
most common object to us is, to him, full of interest. 
Hence, not satisfied with skimming the mere surface of 
things, he tears them apart, or dashes them in pieces, in 
search of more complete information. It signifies not, 
that these actions may be partly or wholly instinctive. 
This is the way, the only way, in which knowledge can be 
acquired. 

For the next nme or twelve months, his education pro- 
ceeds with the most surprising rapidity. In addition to 
the immense number of objects, with whose quahties he 
has made himself familiar, he has learnt to balance and 
support his body, to walk, and, wonderful to relate, he 
can perform the miracle of, — speech ! What an increase 
of interest does this last give to his studies ! To the 
knowledge of qualities, he now adds that of names, not 
mere dead vocables, but living language, the materials of 
thought. Our little philosopher now begins to trace re- 
semblances, to distinguish differences, to generalize, to 
form his classifications, his theories. To one class of ob- 
jects, he gives the name of mart, to another, tree, to a third, 
stone. And all this, without even the slightest offer of 
instruction from others. His store of knowledge is all of 
his own collecting. If he has assistance, it is from Na- 
ture alone. 

From the age of one year, to that of four or five, the 
child, under the tuition of his first instructress. Nature, con- 
tinues steadily and rapidly to advance in the knowledge 
of his vernacular language. But how does he contrive to 
add new words to his stock ^ Deals he in theory, or in 
practice ? Is it by means of the elements of words, or 
definitions^ or grammars ? Must he know the names of 
letters and syllables, before he can acquire a word ; and 
must he rely, for a knowledge of its meaning, on dictiona- 
ries, or oral definitions ? No, truly. Nature's method 
is directly the reverse of that of man. By observation he 
learns a few names, in constant use ; and he acquires the 
knowledge of verbs, qualities, and particles, by observing 



16 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

their connexion with those known names : in other words, 
by the context. Who ever thought of explaining to a 
child the meaning of the words, good, bad, love, this, he, 
from, to, for, &c. Only let the attempt be made, and its 
utter futility will quickly appear. 

Meanwhile, his knowledge of things increases as fast as 
his stock of wordsr His sphere of observation is rapidly 
extended, and all his senses are engaged in philosophical 
investigations into the nature of the objects around him ; 
the minerals, vegetables, animals, and works of art, which 
adorn the earth ; the sun, moon, and stars, which embel- 
lish the heavens. 

While the intellectual powers of the child are thus in a 
state of progressive developement, his physical education 
is by no means at a stand. If he have received a moder- 
ately healthy constitution from his parents, he delights to 
spend his time in the open air, where his lungs can have 
full play, and where his limbs may expand and gain 
strength, by unrestricted exercise. The children of the 
poor have here a decided advantage over those of the 
rich ; for such, unfortunately, are the weakness and folly 
of the latter, that the health of their offspring is too fre- 
quently sacrificed, at the shrine of their vanity and love of 
display. Fashion, that insatiable Moloch, is not content 
with the consecration, by its devotee, of his own soul, 
purse, and person. It demands, that his child shall pass 
through the fire ; that, at whatever risk to his health and 
intellect, his body shall be converted into a mere clothes- 
screen for the display of the frivolous fancies of the tailor 
and milliner. Where such a sacrifice has been consum- 
mated, it is vain to look, either for strength of body or 
vigor of intellect. The unfortunate little victim must 
neither run, chmb, wade, roll, nor play. The clothes 
must neither be torn nor soiled. Every thing must give 
way to the clothes. And, finally, the child, if he survive, 
grows up a mere dandy ; " a clothes-w^earing man ; a man 
whose trade, office, and existence, consists in the wearing 
of clothes." When shall this base idolatry come to an 
end ? When shall the Moloch of Christendom be pulled 
from his throne, and cast into that fire, wherein so many 



WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 17 

of his victims have perished. This can be accomplished 
only by a radical change in female education. Female 
influence is, here, all in all. 

But to return. During this portion of his life, too, the 
moral sense of the child begins to be developed. He 
perceives, that there are many other beings in the world 
besides himself, some of whom have the same claims that 
he has, on the attention of his parents. He finds out, that 
he cannot have his own way in every thing ; that to at- 
tempt it is only to subject himself to suffering ; that it is 
necessary that he should, in some degree, respect the rights 
of others. Should his parents, at this period, have suffi- 
cient tact, to notice and encourage the first appearance 
of sympathy with the joys and sorrows of others^ an an- 
tagonist to the selfish principle will soon be more or less 
developed, that may neutralize many of its evil effects ; 
while, on the contrary, should this be neglected, and his 
selfish views and actions be encouraged, as is too fre- 
quently the case, it may probably attain a degree of 
strength, that may tinge his maturer age with the darkest 
colors, seriously affecting both his future usefulness and 
happiness. For no truth in morals is more certain, than 
that no one can be happy who fives for himself alone ; 
and that the stronger the affections, the greater the chance 
for felicity. 

But who is the great, moral schoolmaster, at this 
critical period of the child's life ? It is public opin- 
ion, acting through the conversation and example of his 
parents, of his brothers and sisters, and of his other play- 
fellows. It is the combined power of the whole human 
race^ which may correctly be denominated custom, or 
TRADITION. Through this medium, Moses and the Proph- 
ets, Christ and his Apostles, Luther, Calvin, Faust, his 
pilgrim forefathers, Penn, Washington, Franklin, and 
even Watt, Fulton, and McAdam, combine, in mould- 
ing this precious germ of immortality. Among this host 
of worthies, however, many evil influences throw their 
quota into the formation of what may be considered tra- 
dition. The folfies and vices of the surrounding world ; 
the superstitions of our Saxon and Norman ancestors ; 
2* 



18 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

nay, the dark blot of slavery, which stains so large a por- 
tion of our country, contributes its share in the formation 
of character, even where it has never existed. 

The child has now arrived at the age, at which it is 
usual for his school education to commence, the results of 
which have already been noticed. Let us continue to 
observe the results of his education from other sources. 

His childish associates now continually increase in 
number, and, with their extension, his ideas proportion- 
ally expand. Nature, hkewise, is beheld on a larger 
scale. He begins to discover, without the aid of books, 
that the world is not all contained within the narrow cir- 
cle of his horizon. He hears of richer climes, of the 
extensive wilds of the unbounded West, and of the crowd- 
ed marts along the Atlantic coast, in his native land, and 
of distant seas and foreign lands, beyond them. His pa- 
rents take him to the House of God, of whom, already, 
he has attained some vague, undefined notion. Here, 
however, whatever may be the case in after years, as yet 
he gains but little direct instruction. The teacher in that 
important school is commonly too full of his learning, or 
has not the talent (and it is one of the first order) of ac- 
commodating his language to the comprehension of our 
pupil, and of the other children of larger growth^ who lis- 
ten to his instructions. The indirect influence, however, 
is powerful.- — The town meeting begins to attract his no- 
tice. He swallows, with avidity, the pohtical knowledge 
to be picked up in that arena, and acquires some general 
ideas of his rights and duties. The district school 
meeting, also, proves to him a source of information. 
In those two schools, our future legislators receive their 
chief training. But most of his knowledge of justice, 
forms of law, rights, and wrongs, is derived from our ju- 
dicial establishmentSjfrom the more solemn, formal courts 
in the county town, to the more simple dispensation of 
right in the justice's office. 

Such, independently of the teachings in the district 
schoolhouse, are the principal seminaries for training our 
youth in knowledge and in virtue. Many other influ- 
ences, for good and for evil, might be enumerated. But 
these are sufficient for our purpose. 



WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 19 

And now, reader, what thinkest thou of the supply of 
virtue and intelhgence, furnished by our primary schools ? 
At the great table of knowledge, where our youth are fed, 
where their physical powers and intellectual and moral 
faculties are nourished and expanded, from their first ap- 
pearance in the infant, to their full growth in the perfect 
man, whsit proportion is supplied by School Education 
as it is ? Is it really more than 

" A beggarly account of empty boxes," 

" thinly scattered, to make up a show ?" — Shakspeare. 

Are not most of our district schools, places where foun- 
dations are laid, upon which no superstructure is to be 
reared ; acquisitions made merely for the rust and the 
moth to corrupt ?* 

We shall presently see, what different results might rea- 
sonably be expected from the School, as it should be : 
where real knowledge should be dispensed, instead of its 
semblance ; kernels, in place of husks and shells. Mean- 
while, let us continue our examination of the School as 
it is^ under the different aspects of physical, intellectual, 
and moral, education.! 

* In a Report on the State of Education in Bengal, published by or- 
der of the government of that country, the following melancholy picture 
is drawn of the state of the schools. We leave it to every one to de- 
cide for himself, how much of it is applicable to those of New England. 
" The scholars are entirely without instruction, both literary and oral, 
regarding the personal virtues, and domestic and social duties. The 
teacher, in virtue of his character, or in the way of advice or reproof, 
exercises no moral influence on the character of his pupils. For the 
sake of pay, he performs a menial service, in the spirit of a menial. 
On the other hand, there is no text or school-book used, containing any 
moral truths or liberal knowledge ; so that education, being limited 
entirely [chiefly] to accounts, tends rather to narrow the mind and 
confine its attention to sordid gai?i, than to improve the heart and en- 
large the understanding. 

t In an address delivered at Worcester, Massachusetts, a few years 
ago, the orator said, " We see the magic influence of our schools, in the 
habits of industry, sobriety, and order, which prevail in the commu- 
nity ; in the cheerful obedience yielded to the laws ; and in the acts 
of charity and benevolence, which are, every day, multiplied around 
us." This sentence, to be correct, should be read thus : " If properly 
conducted, we should see the magic influence of our schools, in the 
habits of industry, sobriety, and order, which would prevail," &c. 
That the community do possess habits of industry, sobriety, and order. 



20 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

CHAPTER III. 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

Physical education relates to the body. To it be- 
long the proper training and strengthening of all its pow- 
ers, and the avoidance of every thing calculated to injure its 
structure. Nature, here, is the great preceptress. If we 
only attend to her warnings, we shall seldom go wrong ; 
and, when we neglect them, we are sure of punishment, 
more or less severe. Our present duty, then, will be, 
chiefly, to point out the deviations from Nature's course, 
while the child is at school. 

The first and most striking error, in physical education, 
is the unnecessary confinement to which the child is sub- 
jected. At the early age at which he first goes to school, 
nothing can be more painful, nor more pernicious. No 
one that has observed a youth, between the age of three 
and six, can doubt, that Nature requires, that he should be 
almost constantly in motion, during his waking hours. At 
this period, he is all activity, for ever engaged in some em- 
ployment, by which he is acquiring knowledge, at the 
same time that he is developing and strengthening his 
physical powers. How painful, then, how unnatural, must 
be his situation in school ! Pent up, for nearly six hours a 
day, confined to one seat, and that, generally, a very uneasy 
one, where, notwithstanding, he is forced to sit perfectly 
still and silent, without employment, (for the pretence of 
study, at that age, is truly ridiculous,) how irksome must 
be his condition, how prejudicial to his health ! And what 
aggravates the evil is, that it is wholly unnecessary. For 
the extended confinement defeats the very purpose for 
which it is imposed. " The body and mind," says Sterne, 
" are like a jerkin and its lining. If you rumple the one, 

is undoubtedly true ; but the speaker attributed them to a wrong source. 
Nor can any one doubt, that the schools might easily be so modified, 
as to have a powerful influence in improving and extending such ben- 
eficial habits. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 21 

you rumple the other." Besides the injury to his health, 
his mind becomes heavy and dull, and his progress, con- 
sequently, is not half what it would be under a more 
rational course. What that course should be, will be 
pointed out in its proper place. 

The next evil, imperatively calling for a remedy, is the 
improper location of the schoolhouse. This, from a pal- 
try spirit of niggardliness, is usually placed, immediately on, 
nay, sometimes even in, the highway, to the constant an- 
noyance of the school, from dust and noise, when it is in a 
populous neighborhood. There is, commonly, no play- 
ground. The scholars must either use the road for that 
purpose, to the manifest danger of their own lives and 
limbs, as well as those of passing strangers ; or they must 
trespass on the adjoining property, thus giving rise to dis- 
putes and feuds in the community, and, among themselves, 
to a want of respect for the property of others, leading to 
various injurious results. 

In many places, there is no woodhouse ; or, if there be 
one, it is too small, to accommodate the children, during 
recess, in bad weather. They are, consequently, confined 
at such times to the schoolroom, where the checked 
prompting of Nature to play and exercise spends itself in 
injuring and destroying the school-furniture. 

The schoolroom is too small, either for convenience, 
comfort, or health. The seats are narrow, and too high 
for many of the children, so that their feet hang dangling, 
thus adding to their uneasiness, increasing their restless- 
ness, preventing praper attention to their books, and hav- 
ing, also, a direct tendency to produce deformity in the 
Hmbs. For, if the seat be narrow, half the thigh, only, 
rests upon it ; if too high, the feet do not reach the floor. 
Now, most children go first to school while many of their 
bones are still in the forming state, httle else but gristle, and 
when any of the numerous joints may be easily loosened 
or distorted. " They go almost as early as when the Chi- 
nese turn their childrens' feet into the shape of horses' 
hoofs; or when some tribes of Indians make their children's 
heads as square as a joiner's box. And, at this period of 
life, the question is, whether the seats shall be conformed 



22 THE teacher's manual. 

to the children, or the children deformed to the seats. Let 
any man try the experiment, and see how long he can sit 
in an upright posture, on a narrow bench or seat, without 
being able to reach the floor with his feet, and, consequent- 
ly, with the whole weight of his feet and the lower part 
of his limbs acting with the power of a lever across the 
middle of the thigh bones. Yet, to this position, hundreds 
of children are regularly confined, month after month ; and, 
while condemned to this unnatural posture. Nature inflicts 
her punishments of insupportable uneasiness and distress 
on every joint and muscle, if they do sit still, and the 
teacher inflicts his punishments, if they do not. A gentle- 
man, extensively known to the citizens of this State, for 
the benevolence of his character, and the candor of his 
statements, who, for the last twenty years, has probably 
visited more of our common schools, than any other per- 
son in the State, writes to me as follows : ' I have no hes- 
itation in repeating, what I have so often publicly declar- 
ed, that, from the bad construction of our schoolhouses, 
there is more physical suffering endured by our children 
in them, than by prisoners in our jails and prisons.' "* 
There are no convenient places under the desks, for put- 
ting away the books and slates. The closet for hats and 
coats is small and inconvenient, or altogether wanting, so 
that the children acquire disorderly and wasteful habits 
with their clothes, either throwing them, carelessly, on the 
benches, or heaping them on the table, which leads to a 
scene of tumult and disorder at the close of the school. 
The room is badly ventilated, so that, in cool weather, 
when the doors and windows aire kept shut, the children 
are forced to breath the same air, over and over, until it 
has become unfit for respiration, thus laying a foundation 
for debility and disease. 

The lighting of the room, also, frequently becomes a 
source of serious evil. Furnishing too much light is a 
prominent error in American architecture. The eye 
quickly accommodates itself to a moderate portion, and 
the glare of sunshine is always pernicious. A northern 

* Report of the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachu- 
setts, on the subject of schoolhouses. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 23 

exposure gives a steady light, and is therefore always cho- 
sen by the painter and the engraver, who are also careful 
to avoid cross lights. Children, beginning to strain their 
ey€s with small characters, are placed under similar circum- 
stances, and parents would act wisely, if they made for 
them a similar choice. But, if the building will not admit 
of such an arrangement, by all means let there be window- 
curtains, effectually to exclude the direct rays of the sun. 

The building is, generally, badly adapted for retaining 
the heat in Winter. When constructed of wood, the un- 
derpinning admits the passage of the cold air under the 
floor, and there is no plastering below, to intercept it. 
The feet, consequently, are always cold, and, where that 
is the case, there can be neither comfort nor health. The 
window-sashes are sufficiently loose to admit air, and, as 
there is no warm air introduced to supply the place of 
that which is consumed by the fire, and carried oiF by the 
draught, a steady stream of cold air enters by every crev- 
ice, laying the foundation for incurable pulmonary and 
bronchial complaints. 

The management of the stove, in Winter, is almost al- 
ways bad. Any one that chooses is allowed to fill it ; 
and, as children have httle judgment in such matters, and 
think only of the present moment, it is commonly crammed 
so full, that those who are near, to escape roasting, are 
forced to open doors, or windows, or both. Matters re- 
main in this state, till a chill is felt, when another child 
undertakes to mend the fire, who generally brings about 
pretty much the same result. And thus goes on a regu- 
lar alternation of freezing and roasting, whose consequen- 
ces it does not require the knowledge of a physician to 
foretell. A share of the blame, frequently, should fall on 
the prudential committee. From a false economy, or 
want of forethought, and, sometimes, from want of a wood- 
house, the fuel is green, or dry, soft wood, and the school 
have Hobson's choice, a great fire or none. For want 
of a basin of water on the stove, too, the air becomes un- 
naturally dry and unwholesome, especially where a large 
fire is constantly kept up. Lastly, although the ceiling 
is low, the stove-pipe is carried the whole length of the 



24 

room, over the heads of the scholars, so as almost literally 
to roast their brains. Who can see the bloodshot eyes 
of the suffering children without commiseration ? 

There is, generally, neither mat nor scraper. In muddy 
weather, quantities of dirt, — in Winter, a great deal of 
snow, — are necessarily carried into the schoolroom on the 
clothes of the children, thus giving rise to filthy, careless 
habits, in addition to the direct inconvenience. A basin 
and towel, one would think, were indispensable, where so 
many young children spend the day ; yet such articles 
are always among the missing, as plainly appears from the 
situation their books are in. Even a pail and tin drink- 
ing-cup, are not always to be found. Lastly, however far 
off may be the spring or well, no pains are taken to fur- 
nish the school with water, which, consequently, has fre- 
quently to be lugged a considerable distance. 



CHAPTER IV. 

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 

Having thus noticed some of the most prominent de- 
fects in Physical Education, let us next direct our atten- 
tion to the culture of the intellect, and inquire, if there be 
no defects there. 

It may, perhaps, however, be proper to observe, that 
our classification of the subject into the three branches of 
Physical, Intellectual, and Moral, Education, though ex- 
tremely convenient, is by no means perfect, or unobjec- 
tionable. So intimate are the relations of the body and 
mind, that, as has been before observed, no effect, of 
consequence, can be produced in the one, without corres- 
ponding changes appearing in the other. For instance, 
it is sufficiently obvious, that the deleterious effects of the 
alternations of heat and cold in our Winter schools, and 
the sufferings of children from their painful postures, are 
not confined to their bodies, but must also seriously affect 
their intellectual education. Again, a cultivated intellect 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 25 

is the only sure foundation for a pure morality, which must 
ever be at a low ebb amidst intellectual darkness. And, 
on the other hand, each reflects on and illuminates the 
other. For as, in a clear intellect, the happiness, arising 
from religion and a life of virtue, may be distinctly seen 
and appreciated ; so, in a mind, unclouded by passion, 
the intellect can have full play, and its pleasures are in- 
creased in a duphcate ratio. On this account, it is some- 
times difficult to decide to which class certain subjects 
belong. That of Discipline , for instance, has an impor- 
tant bearing on each of the three classes. The same may 
be said of the subject of Teacher's Seminaries. And 
the amusements of children would be appropriate either to 
Moral or Physical Education. There are ^ew classifica- 
tions, however, to which similar remarks would not ap- 
ply.* But it by no means follows, that they should be 
abandoned. It is only necessary, that the reader should 
be cautioned, that such classifications are merely approxi- 
mations, not strictly correct. The rule we shall adhere 
to is, that each subject shall be arranged under that head 
to which it appears most closely related. 

Under the head of Intellectual Education, the most 
prominent object, the one, indeed, on which all the oth- 
ers depend, is that of the qualification of teachers. 
Without good teachers, it is vain to look for good schools. 
And how can we have good teachers, unless they have 
encouragement, properly to prepare themselves for their 
arduous and responsible task. In every profession, but 
that of teacher, employment can be had during the whole 
year ; or, if there be a season when business is regularly 
at a stand, the emoluments are proportionally greater ; 
or, matters are so arranged, that one kind of occupation 
can be pursued at one season, and another for the rest of 
the year, as in the case of the tanner and shoemaker. 
In this profession, alone, except in the cities and large vil- 
lages, no one can gain even a scanty subsistence. For 

* The celebrated botanical classification of Linnaeus has the same 
defect. Several of the classes have been entirely abolished by modern 
botanists ; and, even in those remaining, several plants have been re- 
moved from one class to another. 
3 



26 THE teacher's manual. 

the plan universally practised, of alternating male schools, 
in Winter, and female, in Summer, renders it impossible 
for a teacher to gain a living, unless the wages should, at 
the very ^least, be doubled. With respect to male teach- 
ers, this is comparatively of less importance ; as the col- 
lege vacations are purposely arranged, so as to allow the 
students to attend to the Winter schools. But the female 
teachers are thrown out of employment precisely at that 
season, when it is most difficult to procure any other. The 
unavoidable consequence, then, of this alternating system, 
is, that there is hterally no such profession as that of a 
female teacher. The whole business is conducted by raw 
apprentices, in place of experienced workmen, — young 
girls, just grown up, who adopt it, not with any view of 
obtaining thereby a subsistence, but merely for some tem- 
porary purpose. One, for example, wishes to complete 
her education at a distant boarding-school ; a second wants 
some article of dress, too costly for her parents to furnish; 
a third is anxious to procure some musical instrument ; a 
fourth wishes to avoid the necessity of attending to her 
father's dairy. For objects such as these, school-keeping, 
for a few months^ is the universal resource. And this is 
almost the sole dependence of the whole country, for fe- 
male teachers. But what can be expected from inexpe- 
rienced, young girls, who engage in teaching with views 
like these ? Is it not rather surprising, that they effect so 
much as they do ? 

Nor is this the sole evil attending the alternating sys- 
tem. It does not merely exclude from the profession all 
who have not other means of maintaining themselves ; but, 
independently of this, it is a ruinous system. For, when 
a teacher opens a school, she is, of course, totally ignorant 
of the habits, manners, and capacity, of her pupils ; and 
they understand as Httle of her methods of tuition and dis- 
cipline. Some time will elapse, before the school can 
work smoothly, before both parties thoroughly understand 
each other. Should she prove unequal to the task, her 
engagement will still generally be completed ; for, as her 
incompetency, probably, is not discovered, before the ex- 
piration of half her term, most parents will rather submit 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 27 

to the Inconvenience a little longer, than give rise to con- 
tention in the district, by insisting on a change. It is a 
common saying, " Her engagement will soon be over. 
We shall soon have a better teacher." Vain expectation ! 
How can we expect a better, when we have only raw, 
inexperienced, young girls to choose from .'' 

But, even supposing the school to be satisfactory, a 
considerable part of each term must be lost in organizing, 
and getting to understand each other ; and, before much 
progress can be made, the term is at an end, and the good 
teacher must give way to another, differing, probably, in 
habits, disposition, and methods of tuition, and, of course, 
as before, profoundly ignorant of the pupils. Would it 
be possible, for the best trained teachers, with the best 
system of tuition, to effect much good, under such an ar- 
rangement ? 

It appears evident, then, if we really intend our children 
to receive a good education, that this alternating system 
must be abandoned, and that female teachers, at least, 
must have permament schools. Seminaries for teachers, 
alone, can never effect the object. We must be able to 
show, that a maintenance can certainly be derived from 
the profession, before we can expect any properly to pre- 
pare for it, and before females in middle life, however 
well prepared, can look towards it as a means of support. 
When we have done this, many years will not elapse, be- 
fore w^e shall have a large body of competent teachers. 

Let the office be established, and a sufficiency of in- 
cumbents will not long be wanting. A substitute for this 
alternating system, more economical, as well as more 
efficient, will be found in its proper place. 

Seminaries for teachers have been established in va- 
rious parts of the country, sometimes as independent 
schools, at others, as branches of academies or colleges ; 
but, as yet, the beneficial results have been trifling. The 
proper object of these institutions, it is to be feared, has 
been -too frequently lost sight of. The plan has com- 
monly been, to extend the knowledge of the students to 
the higher branches of learning, rather than to instruct 
them in the art of teachings more especially the art of 



28 

teaching the elements of school learning, — reading and 
arithmetic. To render a seminary for teachers really 
useful, the instructer must go back to numeration and the 
A, B, C, for it is here that the great deficiency lies.* 

The practical part, also, is wanted in these semina- 
ries. Theory, alone, is not sufficient. A school of 
children, of from five to ten years of age, attached to 
such institutions, is altogether indispensable. Here, also, 
the capacity of children of different ages must be studied, 
and the teachers must make themselves familiarly ac- 
quainted with the extent of their vocabularies. For want 
of this knowledge, the most serious yet ridiculous blun- 
ders are committed. 

In a late visit to Philadelphia, T was invited to attend 
a lecture from a teacher of some eminence in that city, 
before the pupils of the pubhc schools. At the appoint- 
ed hour, I found the directors of the schools assembled, 
and two or three hundred children of both sexes, appa- 
rently between the ages of six and ten. The speaker, 
shortly after, took his place, and, to my great surprise 
and disappointment, delivered a well-written lecture, 
which lasted about three quarters of an hour, on the ex- 
tent and importance of the exact sciences ! ! At the 
commencement of the discourse, the eyes of the httle au- 
ditors were fastened on the speaker witli an expression 
of eager expectation and delight. But alas ! it would 
not do. To them, the language and subject were alike 
''heathen Greek ;" and soon, very soon, the attempt to 
follow the lecturer had to be abandoned in despair. Ea- 
ger expectation was succeeded by listlessness and fatigue, 
and a most wearisome sitting had the poor little souls to 
endure. 

The effect of such misplaced lectures, as these, cannot 
fail to be highly injurious to their auditors. They blunt 
the intellectual perceptions, give rise to habits of dreamy 
wandering of mind, and are destructive of the valuable 

* The French Minister of Instruction makes the same complaint. 
He stated officially, a few years ago, that *' very few primary teach- 
ers who came from the new JVormal Schools had learned the secret of 
good methods, and the pri7iciples of rational education." 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 29 

faculties of observation and attention, without which, all 
attempts to confer a good education are futile. It may 
be said, that this is an extreme case ; and it is to be hoped 
that it is so ; but still, there can be no doubt, that there 
exists among teachers, a deplorable ignorance, (or, which 
amounts to the same thing, carelessness,) as to the extent 
of the vocabulary and capacity of their auditors : a re- 
mark, by the way, applicable to others, besides school 
teachers. This is a subject well worthy the attention of 
visiters and superintendents of Teacher's Seminaries. 

Discipline is a subject of the first importance in schools. 
Without subordination and good government, no school 
can make any considerable progress. The principal er- 
rors, on this head, may be thus enumerated : 

1. Discipline may be too lax, and the efficiency of the 
school destroyed by noise and confusion. Efforts are 
occasionally made to restrain disorder, but these are mo- 
mentary only, and affairs quickly relapse into their usual 
state. 

2. Discipline may be so strict, as, without intervals 
of relief at regular short intervals, may prove alike hurt- 
ful to the physical and mental powers of the pupil. The 
necessity for relaxation and exercise has been so fully 
shown, as to make it unnecessary, here, to add another 
^vord. But, although unreasonable confinement defeats its 
object, that is no objection to good discipline. Let it 
be brief in its period, and it cannot be too strict in degree. 

3. A still more grievous error, and by far the most 
common, is a want of firmness. The rules are strict, 
but they are seldom carried into effect ; and, when they 
are, relaxation immediately follows. We have been told 
of a teacher, who frequently relaxed discipline to such a 
degree, that the whole school was in an uproar. Awak- 
ened thus from his stupor, he would seize his cane, and be- 
labor all round, till order was completely restored. This 
state of quiet, however, would last but a short time. 
The universal silence would soon be broken by a low 
whispering, which, remaining unnoticed, gradually in- 
creased in intensity, ending, finally, in loud talk, laughter, 
and jumping across the benches, which, of course, brought 

3* 



30 

about the same round of general whipping, universal si- 
lence^ &c. This picture is probably highly exaggera- 
ted ; but there are few, who have not seen schools man- 
aged, more or less, on the same principles. 

4. Some- teachers resort to the rod, even on the most 
trifling occasion. It is always in their hands, and seldom 
long unemployed. Thus, both master and scholar are 
brutified and debased, the law of love becomes extinct in 
their bosoms, and nothing can produce the slightest effect 
on the pupil, but pure force. 

5. Others have so little command of their temper, as 
to indulge in habitual scolding. They speak harshly to 
the pupils for the merest trifle, the natural consequence 
of which is, that their reproofs lose all their effect. Such 
a course operates injuriously on the temper, both of teach- 
er and pupil. Fretfulness and irritability pervade the 
whole school. 

6. The moral sense of the pupil is seldom, if ever, 
appealed to. Every regulation is grounded on mere au- 
thority ; no attempt being made to show, that nearly all 
the benefits, flowing from good discipline, result to the in- 
dividual advantage of the pupil. So far is this occa- 
sionally lost sight of, that, sometimes, the children will 
learn to regard themselves and teacher as opposites to 
each other ; as having two distinct interests ; it being their 
master's object to lay on restrictions, and abridge their 
liberty, while it is their business, by all sorts of means, 
combination among themselves, concealment, trick, false- 
hood, or open disobedience, to bafile his watchfulness, 
and evade his severity. 

7. Finally, there are -some teachers, whose manners 
and habits are essentially vulgar. These will pinch the 
ears, and pull the hair of their pupils ; or, still worse, 
beat them about the head with a book, a cane, or what- 
ever happens to be in the hand. Such punishments as 
these are altogether wrong. They are dangerous ; and 
seldom fail to excite resentment in place of contrition, the 
main legitimate object of punishment. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 31 

CHAPTER V. 

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 

Is there, then, nothing good in our system of public 
instruction ? Is it, throughout, a mass of blunders ? By 
no means. It contains much that is good, though, as has 
been seen, there is mingled with it much that is evil. 
But, as the present question is, how shall it be purified 
of its errors, and rendered as efficient as possible, it would 
be altogether out of place to speak, here, of its advan- 
tages, or its beauties. Let us continue, then, our search- 
ing inquiry into its errors and deficiencies, so that, when 
we come to prepare our improved system, we may knxDw 
how to avoid every thing that may have the slightest ten- 
dency to impede our progress, or, in any manner, lessen 
its efficiency. 

Although many of the remarks, which follow, will be 
apphcable to the higher branches of learning, yet our 
chief attention will be devoted, at present, to the initiatory 
steps. The proper management of these is of the very 
first importance, and, unfortunately, this is the very part 
of education that has attracted least attention. The teach- 
ing of reading, spelling, and the alphabet, has been con- 
sidered a task that any one might execute. We forget, 
that to this point can be traced nearly all our bad habits, 
habits which exert so prejudicial an effect on the whole 
future course of study, and which no after discipline can 
completely remove. Let us, then, in future, avoid this 
serious error. Let us no longer consider it as unworthy 
of our attention ; nor turn, with an eye of indifference, 
from the basis of knowledge, fully convinced, that on the 
solidity of the foundation, depends all the beauty and use- 
fulness of the structure. 

The first branch of knowledge, to which the attention 
of the child is directed on entering school, is Reading. 
Hitherto, as was shown in the second chapter, his studies 
have been altogether dehghtful. His progress has been 



S2 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

constant and rapid ; for, as yet, he has dealt with nothing 
but real knowledge. No barren sounds, no unintelligible 
words have occurred, to embarrass and impede him. But 
now, very different becomes his situation. A book is 
placed in his hands, which he is told he must learn to 
read J that he may know how to become wise and good, 
and he is delighted with the prospect. But, alas ! how 
grievous the disappointment ! For months, nay, some- 
times for years, his studies consist of nothing but mere 
sounds, to which it is impossible he can annex any idea 
whatever. His school-hours are solely occupied with 
As and Bs, abs, ebs, and ibs. Now, what must be the 
effect of all this, upon an intelligent child ? Surely, it is 
sufficiently evident, that his active mind cannot be exclu- 
sively employed in such tiresome drudgery. For this is 
nothing but a mere affair of memory, in which the reason 
and judgment of the child is never called into action. 
The natural, the unavoidable, result of such a process is, 
that he acquires a habit of mechanically repeating those 
sounds, while his mind is occupied with objects of a to- 
tally different nature. He can repeat his A, B, C, his 
ab, eb, ib, &c. ; and, all the while, his mind can be far 
distant, at play with his schoolmates, or at the family 
fireside. And thus, at the very outset, the child lays the 
foundation of the grand impediment to the easy attainment 
of knowledge, the impassable barrier to self-education, — 
the habit of mental wandering. 

This plan of education is the synthetic method, which, 
commencing with elements, joins them to form compounds, 
and, again compounding those, forms them into the sub- 
stances with which we are acquainted. Thus, should we 
be taught mineralogy according to this system, we should 
first have to learn the names of all the elements of which 
stones were composed, and then, by joining them in the 
proper proportions, we should form stones. But such is 
not the method in which we are instructed by Nature. It 
is, in fact, doubtful, whether we are acquainted with any 
elementary substance. It is true, our chemical works 
give us a list of some fifty or more substances, which are 
called elements ; but it is doubtful, whether any one of 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 33 

them really is so. They should be considered only as 
elements, according to the present state of knoidedge. 
Future discoveries will probably reduce the number, or 
totally change the whole list. But to return. Nature's 
mode of teaching is altogether analytic. She first pre- 
sents us with a group, forming a perfect whole, and then 
instructs us how to analyse it, or divide it into its compo- 
nent parts. For instance : a child knows a tree, and can 
name it, long before he has ever heard or thought of 
leaves, twigs, branches, trunk, or root ; a house, before 
he has become acquainted with shingles, boards, brick, 
stone, or lime ; a man, before head, limbs, neck, or body. 
At a more advanced period of his education, he ex- 
tends his knowledge by new analyses. For instance : he 
examines into the nature of leaves, &c., of trees ; of 
stones and lime, which enter into the formation of a 
house ; of flesh and bones, which form the man. Were 
he to wait till he knew the A, B, C of Nature, before 
he made himself acquainted with the objects around him, 
he would never know them at all. Let not the above 
remarks be understood as objecting to the inductive 
method of philosophizing. Science can have no sure 
foundation, save on observation, experiment, and induc- 
tion. But it by no means follows, that the knowledge of 
reading must be acquired by the same method, especially 
by young children, whose reasoning faculties are as yet 
undeveloped. Besides, it will be found, that even the 
sciences are taught, chiefly, by analysis. It is in the 
cultivation of science by the philosopher, not in its com- 
munication by the teacher, that induction is indispens- 
able. 

Having thus pointed out the serious evil, arising from 
the synthetic mode of teaching reading, namely, the habit 
of mental wandering, or thinking of one thing while read- 
ing another ; having shown, also, that Nature, in her 
teachings, follows the opposite course, that of analysis ; 
it would appear, that all that is necessary, to induce every 
reasonable mind to approve of the change, is, to show its 
practicability in the present case. This, however, can 
be correctly ascertained by experiment, only. And, al- 



34 THE teacher's manual. 

though every teacher can make the experiment for him- 
self, (and it is one which will require but a short time 
sufficiently to test,) yet it may be satisfactory to know, 
that every trial, hitherto made, which has come to the 
knowledge of the writer, — and those are by no means 
few in num.ber, — have proved eminently successful. He 
would also state, that he has tested the plan on the young- 
er members of his own family, with similar success. The 
first subject of these last experiments was a boy between 
four and five years old, who, in the space of three months, 
without previous knowledge of either letters or words, 
simply by receiving a lesson for about five minutes a 
day, the rest of his time spent in amusement, learnt to 
read all the lessons in Worcester's Primer in a beautiful 
style, and, what was still better, intelhgently. He would, 
therefore, urge a similar trial on every parent anxious for 
the improvement of education, and particularly for the 
removal of that barrier to self-instruction, the pernicious 
habit above referred to. A minute description of this 
method of tuition will appear in its proper place. All 
that is necessary further to observe here is, that the chief 
difference between the two methods is in the order of the 
steps. Letters and syllables must be learned in the new 
as well as in the old method ; but, by a change in the 
time of teaching them, they are acquired with less than 
half the difficulty, and without any danger of acquiring 
bad habits, which are so difficult to eradicate. 

The reading course, which we have seen commence 
so inauspiciously, does not generally improve much in its 
progress. A great deal of time, it must be acknowledged, 
and much labor, are expended in the endeavor to remedy 
what should never have been allowed to be formed, viz., 
bad habits in reading. But all such efforts are commonly 
vain. The teacher himself rarely reads well ; and, when 
the pupil has acquired the stiff mechanical habits which 
the synthetic course never fails to generate, the remedy 
is altogether beyond his reach. Had the child read in- 
telligently, from the first ; had none of his time been mis- 
pent in reading words without connexion, and consequent- 
ly, to him, without meaning ; it might have been possible. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 35 

even for a teacher who did not read well himself, to have 
trained up a school of good readers. For, whatever may 
be the opinion of those who have bestowed little attention 
on this subject, good reading is the natural gift, bad 
reading, entirely an artificial acquirement. For almost 
every child speaks naturally and fluently ; and, when he 
knows the words, why should he not read in the same 
style ? Simply, because, in the course of learning these 
words, he has acquired bad habits, habits arising entirely 
from the practice of attending to sound, unconnected with 
sense. We all know how completely man is the crea- 
ture of habits, and how difficult it is to change them, when 
once formed. How, then, can it be expected of a child, 
especially when under the charge of a teacher who is ig- 
norant of the cause of the evil, as well as of the means 
of cure ? 

But reading well aloud, though a desirable accomplish- 
ment for all, and indispensable for a public teacher, who 
seeks for extensive usefulness, is not so valuable to the 
whole community, as the power of reading silently with 
intelligence ; and, if the latter had generally been achieved 
in our schools, we might, perhaps, have been content to 
spare the former. Unfortunately, however, this is by 
no means the case. The great improvements in school- 
books, of late years, have doubtless been productive of 
much benefit in this respect ; and, where the method of 
questioning, which has been introduced into nearly all, 
has been thoroughly and steadily followed, the evils aris- 
ing from the faulty commencement may, with much labor 
to both teacher and pupils, have finally been overcome. 
Truly happy would it have been for the community, had 
this generally been the case ; but, unfortunately, too many 
teachers have not, or rather fancy they have not, the time 
necessary for the questioning process : as if it were pos- 
sible there should not be time for the most important part 
of education, reading understandingly. Surely no other 
study can compete with it, as to utility. Surely every 
thing else should give way to this. But it is to be feared, 
that this neglect does not arise from want of time, but 
rather from an indisposition in the teacher properly to task 



36 THE teacher's manual. 

his own mind. For this is a matter that cannot be at- 
tended to mechanically, like most of the other operations 
of the school. It requires equal attention in teacher and 
pupil. Had answers been given to the questions, proba- 
bly the want of time would never have been urged as a 
reason for their neglect. But answers would have com- 
pletely nullified the process ; the object being, to cause 
the pupil to exert his thinking powers. 

There is one mode of using these questions, however, 
which is little better than their total neglect. The chil- 
dren are allowed the time, nay, even directed, to study 
out the answers. Where this mode is adopted, we shall 
never find intelligent reading. The answers are picked 
out and committed to memory ; and then the reading is 
performed mechanically, without an effort to combine 
sense' with sound. The sole dependence for the recita- 
tion is on the memory. It is evident, that, where this 
method has been adopted, the children, in after life, will 
not be readers ; or that, at all events, their reading will 
not extend beyond novels or tales. 

Orthography. 

In the old-fashioned school, a vast deal of time is spent 
to very little purpose, in the acquisition of spelling ; it 
being commonly found, that the most adroit speller in the 
class cannot write half a dozen lines without orthograph- 
ical blunders. What can be the cause of so signal a fail- 
ure, with such an appearance of proficiency ? The sub- 
ject well deserves examination. 

1. The columns of the spelling-book are committed 
to memory ; and, when the student can spell the whole 
orally, he takes it for granted that he is a proficient in 
orthography. But this by no means follows ; for the 
number of words in the largest spelling-book does not ex- 
ceed seven thousand, whereas there are upwards of eighty 
thousand words in the English language. 

2. The words in the spelling-book are selected and ar- 
ranged, chiefly with a view to teach the elements of read- 
ing ; and it does not contain half the anomalies of orthog- 
raphy. Indeed, the greatest number of these anomalies 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 37 

occur in the words in most common use, few of which 
are to be found in any spelling-book. 

3. It is found, by experience, that spelling well orally, 
and writing orthographically, are really different acquire- 
ments ; and that a child, very expert in the former, may 
be very deficient in the latter. Nothing can show, more 
strikingly, the folly of the oral method of teaching spel- 
ling, than this fact, the truth of which is now generally 
acknowledged. Of the generation now on the stage of 
life, whose education has been confined to the district 
school, although, at least, one third of their time was spent 
in drilling from the spelling-book, not one in ten can write 
a letter of even a few lines without blundering in orthog- 
raphy. 

But the spelling-book is not merely used for teaching 
orthography. The general opinion is, that reading can 
be acquired by no other means. No one seems, for a 
moment, to doubt the truth of the proverb, " We must 
spell, before we can read." This, however, is a point 
well deserving serious examination. For it is here, that 
nearly all the bad habits that prevent intelligent reading 
have their origin. Let us, then, candidly inquire, wheth- 
er it be really necessary " to spell, before we can read ;" 
whether, in fact, spelling, that is, naming the letters, be 
of any assistance, whatever. 

Commencing with the elementary syllables, then, ab, 
eb, ib, &c,, let us carefully note the sounds of their con- 
stituent letters, and, joining them, observe whether they 
have any resemblance to the sounds of the syllables : thus 
a, b, will be found to make aibee ; e, b, to make eebee ; 
i, b, eyebee ; o, b, obee ; and u, b, youbee. Now, what 
resemblance is there between the sounds aibee and ab; 
eebee and eb, &c. ? Evidently none. 

The same discrepancy will be found to exist, on com- 
paring the sounds of words with those of their constitu- 
ents. For instance : before a child is allowed to read 
the word bat, he is directed to say bee-ai-tee ; before cat, 
see-ai'tee ; mat, emm-ai-tee ; rat, ar-ai-tee ; sat, ess-ai- 
tee ; and, before he is allowed to pronounce which, he is 
required to say doubleyou-aitch-eye-see-aitch ! But, lest 
4 



38 THE teacher's manual. 

it should be supposed that an unfair selection of words 
has been made, in order to place the subject in a ludi- 
crous point of view, let us examine a line, with which we 
are all familiar, — the initiatory sentence in Webster's old 
spelling-book, — 

" No man may put off the law of God." 

The manner in which we were taught to read this, — 
'and this manner still prevails in most of the schools, — was 
as follows : 

En-nOy no, emm-ai-en, man, emm-ai-ivy^ may, pee-you- 
tee, put, o-double-eff, off, tee-aitch-ee, the, ell-ai-double- 
you, law, o-eff, of, gee-o-dee, God. 

What can be more absurd than this ? Can we wonder, 
that the progress of a child should be slow, when we 
place such unnecessary impediments as these, in his way?* 

The fallacy on this subject lies within a nut-shell. It 
arises wholly from confounding the names with the powers 
of the letters. If these were similar, there might be some 
excuse for a course of this kind ; though even then it 
would be highly objectionable, on account of the sense 
being destroyed by the recurrence of barren sounds be- 
tween every word ; but, when the names of the letters and 
their powers are so different, a perseverance in this sys- 
tem of tuition is wholly inexcusable. 

* Since the above was written, I have cut the following anecdote out 
of a southern newspaper : 

" The Woods of Lancashire are a distinguished family for character, 
wealth, and talent ; the eldest son, John Wood, has been returned 
member of Parliament for Preston several times, and proved himself a 
steady supporter of civil and religious liberty. A laughable circum- 
stance took place upon a trial in Lancashire, where the head of the 
family, Mr. Wood, senior, was examined as a witness. Upon giving 
his name, Ottiwell W^ood, the judge, addressing the reverend person, 
said, ' Pray, Mr. Wood, how do you spell your name ?' The old gen- 
tleman replied, — 

'O double T 
I double U 
E double L 
double U 
double O D ;' 
Upon which the astonished lawgiver laid down his pen, saying, it was 
the most extraordinary name he had ever met With in his life, and, after 
two or three attempts, declared he was unable to record it. The court 
was convulsed with laughter. ' ' 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 39 

The late Dr. Thornton, who, for many years, presided 
over the Patent-Office at Washington, perceiving the ab- 
surdity of learning to read by the repetition of sounds hav- 
ing no similarity to those of the words, published, in 1790, 
a pamphlet, entitled,' Cadmus, or a Treatise on Written 
Language,' in which he proposed that every letter should 
be named according to its power ; and, there being more 
sounds than letters in the English language, introduced a 
sufficient number of new characters to supply the defi- 
ciency. To carry out this design, however, an entire 
new system of orthography became necessary, which the 
Doctor seriously proposed should be immediately carried 
into effect, not perceiving, apparently, that its adoption 
would render useless all the English books now in exis- 
tence, and force us all to go back to school to learn to 
read ! For this extraordinary production, the Magellanic 
gold medal, and the tide of Cadmus were awarded to the 
learned doctor, by the American Philosophical Society ! 
Had the author known, that reading could be learnt with- 
out the intervention of any names of letters, he might have 
saved his labor, and our wise philosophers might have 
elsewhere bestowed their gold. 

Writing. 

This important branch of education is generally aban- 
doned to itinerant teachers, on the plea of its requiring too 
much of the time and attention of the teacher of the pub- 
lic school. This would undoubtedly be correct, if he 
had to rule and set all the copies, and make and mend all 
the pens. But, surely, this cannot be necessary. Ruled 
books might be procured, and printed models of calligra- 
phy, large enough to be distinctly seen by the scholars, 
when hung on the walls ; and it would be an excellent ex- 
ercise for the larger pupils to assist, by turns, in the pen- 
making department. 

But the child should be a good writer, before ever he 
takes pen in hand. As soon as he enters school, he 
should be provided with a slate ; and he should com- 
mence written arithmetic and composition, as soon as he 
is able to form the necessary characters. Were this prop- 



40 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

erly attended to, all would be good writers ; for the chief 
difficulty, here, as well as in reading, lies in the breaking 
up of those bad habits, which ought never to have been 
formed. 

Where writing is taught in the district school, the most 
important elements, viz., the manner of holding the pen, 
and the position of the body, arms, and hands, are sadly 
neglected. General instructions on these points are com- 
monly given, but they are not sufficiently insisted on, and 
enforced. The consequence is, that a cramped, stiff 
manner of writing is acquired, and, if writing is much 
practised before a better school be resorted to, the pupil 
is exceedingly apt, in a very short time, to fall back into 
his old manner, which has become, as it were, a second 
nature. 

Arithmetic. 

The same pernicious error, which was noticed in 
speaking of the mode of teaching reading and writing, pre- 
vails in this science, viz., a neglect of the foundation ; a 
hurrying of the initiatory steps. Without clear, distinct 
notions of numeration, no satisfactory progress can ever 
be made in arithmetic ; and yet there are schools, where 
it is not taught at all ; where the pupil commences with 
addition, and is left to acquire a knowledge of the local 
value of figures as best he may. And even in those 
schools where it is taught, the subject is passed over, too 
rapidly ; valuable deductions, that might be drawn from it, 
being entirely omitted. What these are, will appear in 
their proper place. 

The four fundamental processes, addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division, are by no means sufficiently 
practised. In addition, in particular, after a while, the 
columns ought to be long, such as the pupil will probably 
meet with, when he comes to practise them in stores, 
counting-houses, banks, and other public offices ; and, in- 
stead of adding, by single figures at a time, he should be 
accustomed to take from two to five figures at once ; for, 
unless he can do this with ease, he will never be an ex- 
pert accountant. This mode of adding will be found, 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 41 

after a little practice, to be more easy, than the formal, 
tedious mode of taking one at a time. A great many ab- 
breviations ought to be pointed out in multiplication ; and 
the Italian method of performing division, now in use 
over all the continent of Europe, which employs only half 
the number of figures used in the old-fashioned way, ought 
also to be adopted. 

The subject of decimal fractions is treated of, separ- 
ately from that of whole numbers, in all our treatises on 
arithmetic, and in an advanced section of the book. 
This arrangement is highly exceptionable ; and is, prob- 
ably, the principal reason why so many complain of the 
difficulty of understanding decimals, when, in fact, the 
subject is so exceedingly simple. Many persons, who 
have gone through two or three courses of arithmetic, 
have declared, that they never could thoroughly under- 
stand decimals. Their extreme simplicity confuses them ; 
as, from their position in the work, they are led to imagine, 
there must be something, behind, which they do not see ; 
something beneath the surface, which their efforts fail to 
bring to light ; a notion, that confuses and mystifies the 
whole subject. Let us see whether any difficulty could 
possibly arise, if decimals were taught in connexion with 
whole numbers. 

And, first, let us suppose that notation of whole num- 
bers had been explained to the pupil, so that he under- 
stood that figures increased tenfold in value by being 
moved one place to the left, and decreased tenfold by 
being moved to the right ; and that they were named 
accordingly, viz. 






3 D 
W 2 2. 

~ .2 Eh H =3 "^ a^ w 
i^ o a c ."S 

.-73 . . ^ P a; G 

2, 4 3 7, 8 9 5 

What difficulty could any child have, in understanding, 

that, when we had to place figures still further to the right, 

it became necessary to use a dot, (.) to show the place 

of units, which no longer occupied the right-hand place ; 

4* 



42 THE teacher's manual. 

and that the same names were used for the numbers ten 
times, &c., less than units, as for those tenfold, &c., 
greater ; only that we added th to them ; the one to the 
left of units being called tensj that to the right tenths ; the 
2d to the left, hundreds, the 2d to the right, hun- 
dredths, &c. 

If a number, containing decimals, were now written on 
the black board, say, 

468,326.4589 
the child would have no difficulty in naming the figures, 
if he were told, always to begin with units. For, pro- 
ceeding to the left, as in whole numbers, he would have 
6 units, 2 tens, 3 hundreds, &c.; or to the right, 6 units, 
4 tenths, 5 hundredths, &c. It should also be explained, 
that he might either name them 4 tenths and 5 hun- 
dredths, or 45 hundredths ; 4 tenths, 5 hundredths, and 
8 thousandths, or 458 thousandths, &c. It should then 
be shown to him, that, by moving the dot one, two, or 
more places to the right or left, he would change the unit's 
place, and, consequently, every figure in the number would 
be decreased or increased, tenfold, a hundredfold, a thou- 
sandfold, &c. Finally, the reason should be given, for 
calHng the figures, to the right of the units, fractions, and 
decimal fractions. All this would be perfectly intelligible 
to a class of children about six years old, if shown on the 
black board. Here would be a convenient place to show 
the use of the 0, commonly called cipher, but more prop- 
erly ^^wre of place ; its sole use being, to show the p/ace 
of the significant figures. Thus, let these four numbers 
be written on the board, 

600 006 .600 .006 
and let it be explained, that the character is of no use, 
unless it intervenes between some significant figure and 
the unit's place. The class should then be called on to 
point out, in which of these four numbers the character 
was necessary, and in which it was useless. 

The repetition of this lesson on the black board, for 
three or four days in succession, would fix the fact, thor- 
oughly, in the mind of the class, that whole numbers and 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 43 

decimal fractions were named on the same principle ; 
both, in fact, being decimals^ or numbers reckoned by 
tens. 

Let us next examine, in what consists the difference 
between addition, subtraction, muhiphcation, and division, 
of whole numbers and of decimals, so as to ascertain, 
whether it is better to teach them separately, or together. 

In addition of integers, figures of the same denomina- 
tion are placed over each other, because it is most conve- 
nient, as those differing in denomination cannot be added 
together. For instance, if it be proposed to add 234, 1 56, 
and 798 together, we should place them thus : 

234 
156 

798 

because the figures 4, 6, and 8, being of one kind, viz., 
units, could be put together ; and also, for the same rea- 
son 9. 5, and 3, tens, and 7, 1, and 2, hundreds. We do 
not place them thus : 

234 
156 
798 
because the 6 and the 3 ; and the 8, 5, and 2 ; and the 9 
and 1, being of different denominations, make neither 9, 
nor 15, nor 10, of any denomination. The same holds 
true of decimals ; and no intelligent child could, for a 
moment, be at a loss, how to place them, if he knew how 
to place integers, and the reason why. The process of 
adding is precisely the same, in both ; and the tens of one 
denomination are considered as units in the next higher, 
also for the same reason ; viz., because ten of one de- 
nomination make one of the other. Why, then, should a 
distinction be made between addition of integers and of 
decimals, when there is no difference ? 

Exactly the same remarks apply to subtraction. Let 
us, therefore, pass at once to mukiplication, which should 
be elucidated by an example on the black board, like the 
following : 



44 THE teacher's manual. 

243687 
842 



487374 
974748 
1949496 
205184454 

Now, let us suppose that the muhiplicand, instead of 
being a whole number, had a dot (.) between the 3 and 
6 ; then, of course, we have used it as if it were 1000 
tincies greater than it is ; consequently, our product is 1000 
times too large, but can easily, as we have seen in page 
42, be made 1000 times smaller, by placing a dot be- 
tween the two fours, which removes the unit's place from, 
the first to the fourth figure from the right hand. Again : 
suppose that the multiplier, instead of 842, should have 
been 8.42 ; then we shall have multiplied by a number 
100 times too large ; consequently, our product, being 
also 100 times too large, will have to be changed once 
more, by removing the dot two places more to the left, 
between the 1 and 8. By repeating a similar process 
and explanation, a few times on the black board, an in- 
telhgent child, unprompted, will come to the conclusion, 
that there must always be as many decimal places in the 
product as in both factors ; and, vice versa, as many in 
both factors as in the product. Now, multiplication of 
decimals differs from that of integers in no other respect, 
than in having a dot to show the place of units. 

In division, let it be taken for granted, that the child 
knows that the divisor and quotient are factors of the 
dividend. Or, if he does not, he may learn it, by being 
asked, what two numbers are the factors of the third, in 
the following example in division : 

8|24_ 
3 

Now, then, let us suppose, that it is required to divide 
24 by 8. The quotient, you observe, is 3. But sup- 
pose the number had been 2.4, what would the quotient 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 45 

then be ? The numbers 8 and 2.4 are given, and, of 
course, not to be altered, then what is this 3 ? Recollect, 
you yourself found out, that there must be as many 
decimal places in both factors, as in the product. Now, 
you say, that 2.4 is the product, in which there is one 
decimal place ; and, as there is none in the factor 8, how 
many must there be in the other factor ? One, you say ; 
that is, the quotient is 3 tenths. 

But suppose our dividend, or product, had been .24 in- 
stead of 2.4. Here, then, the product having two deci- 
mal places, whilst there is none in the divisor-factor, of 
course, there must be two in the quotient-factor. But, 
as there is only one figure in the quotient, we must place 
a for the other ; and the question is, whether it should 
be put after it, or before it. If we place it after it, and 
then place our dot .30, we find it to be useless, because 
it does not change the value of the 3 ; therefore, it must 
go before,. 03. 

The last possible case of any difficulty is, when the 
divisor is a decimal, thus .8, and the product, or dividend, 
a whole number. The rule that we discovered, above, 
was, that there must be as many decimal places in the 
product, as in both factors. Now, there being one in the 
given factor, and none in the product, we must put one 
in the product, but without changing its value ; thus, 
24.0. If we now perform the division, we shall have 
30 for the quotient, which is the correct answer. 

It will probably appear somewhat extraordinary to a 
child, that when 24 is divided by .8, the quotient should 
be larger than the original number, viz. 30 ; and this 
would be a proper place to explain the apparent contra- 
diction, which may be done as follows : Dividing one 
number by another, is finding how many times the one 
number is contained in the other. How many Is are 
there in 24 .'* Answer, 24. But, as .8 is less than one, 
of course there must be more of them, viz. 30. 

It is probable, that all this may appear a little com- 
plicated in the reading ; but, when shown on the black- 
board, it will be readily understood by every child who 
can understand division of integers ; especially if they 



46 THE teacher's manual. 

have been properly trained to habits of attention by the 
other exercises of the school. 

Having thus shown, that, from their great similarity, 
decimals should be taught simultaneously with integers, 
or, at all events, alternately ; that is, 1. Numeration of 
integers ; 2. Numeration of decimals ; 3. Addition of 
integers ; 4. Addition of decimals, and so on ; it may 
be proper to notice, in this connexion, another error com- 
mitted in most of our treatises on Arithmetic, leading to 
similar results ; that is, leading students to imagine a 
difficulty, where there is none in reality. The error, al- 
luded to, consists in making separate articles of addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division^ of Federal money , 
as if they, in any respect, differed from the same proces- 
ses in decimals. There is, generally, even an article de- 
voted to reduction of Federal money; as if any thing 
more was necessary, in reducing one sort of coin'' into 
another, than a mere change of the unit's place. Thus, 

45678 mills 

may be changed into cents, by placing a dot between the 
7 and 8, thereby dividing it by 10, the number of mills in 
a cent ; into dimes, by placing the dot between 6 and 7 ; 
into dollars, by placing it between 5 and 6 ; and into ea- 
gles, by placing it between 4 and 5 ; reduction, descen- 
ding, carrying the dot backwards on the same principle. 
There is, also, a deficiency, when treating of Federal 
money, in not explaining the etymology of the names of 
the coins, which, when understood, makes the subject 
perfectly plain. It might be done thus : a dollar is con- 
sidered the unit ; the meaning of dime, is tenth ; of cent, 
hundredth ; of mill, thousandth ; consequently, 

44.368 dollars 

may be read, either 44 dollars, 3 tenths, (or dimes,) 6 
hundredths, (or cents,) and 8 thousandths, (or mills ;) or 
44 dollars, 36 hundredths, (or cents,) and 8 thousandths, 
or (mills ;) or 44 dollars, and 368 thousandths, (or 
mills ;) or, finally, as 10 dollars make an eagle, (so call- 
ed, from an eagle being the ensign, or arms of the United 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 47 

States,) the 44 dollars may be considered as 4 eagles 
and 4 dollars. 

Before leaving the subject of decimals, it may not be 
improper, here, to enter a protest against the novelty in- 
troduced by some authors, of using a comma instead of a 
dot, to indicate the place of units ; that character being 
already appropriated to a different purpose, viz., the di- 
vision of large numbers into series of threes, for the con- 
venience of reading them readily. Thus, when the com- 
ma is used for both, it is impossible to say whether 

346,789 

stands for 346 thousand and 789 ; or 346 and 789 thou- 
sandths. Other authors, again, have, very improperly, 
taken the liberty of leaving out the separating commas, 
altogether, in large numbers; thus rendering them ex- 
ceedingly difficult to be read. The eye can readily dis- 
tinguish four figures, at a glance. But, when the number 
consists of more than four, they should always be separa- 
ted, by commas, into series of threes. 

But the chief impediment to the thorough acquisition 
of arithmetic lies in the multiplicity of RuleSj with which 
our popular treatises are burdened. Perhaps it would 
be well, if these books consisted merely of a collection 
of questions, systematically arranged, so as to lead the 
students into a knowledge of the principles of the science, 
somewhat on the plan of Colburn's ' Mental Arithmetic.' 
Every teacher ought to be able to give a clear demon- 
stration of the whole subject on the blackboard, on simple, 
philosophical principles. If this were properly done, 
children might be completely versed in arithmetic, by the 
time they reached the age of eight or nine. A specimen 
will be given, in another part of the treatise, of the man- 
ner of conveying this sort of practical instruction on the 
black board, and, at the same time, a more simple and 
natural classification of the whole subject will be offered. 
We shall attempt to supply, also, a very important omis- 
sion on the part both of books and teachers, viz., the dif- 
ferent modes in which the working-out of questions may 
be shortened by cancelling, division, &c. By such ab- 



48 

breviations, not only a vast amount of time and labor is 
saved, but several of the most important principles of 
arithmetic are brought out and elucidated. 

The last error to be noticed, on the subject of written 
arithmetic, is the prevailing custom of furnishing ready- 
made tables of addition and multiplication for the student. 
This is, probably, one of the most injurious species of 
labor-saving machinery. The habit of relying on ready- 
formed tables, instead of forming them for one's self, may 
be classed with that of depending on mechanical rules, and 
the practice of getting the teacher to work out the difficult 
problems, instead of simphfying the subject by a few lead- 
ing questions. These are perversions, which tend to con- 
vert a science, that is probably one of the best adapted to 
lead the mind into trains of reasoning, and habits of pa- 
tient investigation, into a means of leading youth into im- 
plicit, blind reliance on the dicta of books and teachers : 
an admirable method of preparing the community to be- 
come the ready dupes of demagogues, quacks, and fa- 
natics. 

Mental Arithmetic. 

This branch of the science of numbers, properly taught, 
has a tendency to produce the most valuable results. Col- 
burn's little work, on this subject, is by far the best that 
has yet appeared. It is nothing but a mere collection of 
questions, but so admirably arranged, that the student can 
proceed onward, step by step, from the simple question 
of how many fingers are on the hand, to the most com- 
plicated and abstruse problems, almost without the aid of 
a teacher, and all the while forming his own rules. But 
the acquisition of arithmetic is one of the smallest advan- 
tages that may be derived from the proper use of this 
work. If the child is not allowed to study it ; if he is 
never allowed to see the questions at all ; and if they are 
never read to him till his class is called upon to recite ; 
and if he is regularly required to state the manner in which 
he worked them, and his reasons for the adoption of such 
a course, he will thus acquire habits of strict attention to 
the person by whom he is addressed ; of patient investi- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 49 

gation, and of examining and noting the operations of his 
own mind ; habits of infinitely more value, than the mere 
acquisition of science ; habits, in fact, which will give 
him the mastery over all the sciences, at will. 

But, by the mode in which this book is generally used 
in schools, all these important advantages are lost. The 
pupil is allowed to study out the questions at his leisure ; 
sometimes, even, to work them out on the slate, and then, 
committing the answers to memory, or annexing them to 
the questions, he is merely expected to repeat them, when 
called upon, at his recitation. This unfortunate result 
has generally arisen, no doubt, either from the incapacity 
or slothful habits of the teacher. For, of course, it is 
necessary, in order to secure all the advantages of this 
study, that the teacher should, himself, perform the ope- 
ration simultaneously with his pupil. 

The most serious error, however, into which teachers 
have fallen on this subject, has arisen from considering 
mental, as a substitute for written arithmetic, in place 
of an introduction and an assistant to the latter. A 
moment's reflection, one would think, would show that 
it could never be depended on, for any but petty business- 
transactions. Long accounts, and all questions in which 
many large numbers are involved, are totally unsuited to 
mental arithmetic. A knowledge of written arithmetic, 
consequently, is an indispensable requisite of a good edu- 
cation. 

Geography, History, JVatural History, Ghrammar, S^c. 

The higher branches of education are taught in the 
schools, in a much more satisfactory manner, than the 
fundamental studies which have been noticed ; and, in 
some degree, serve to rub off the rust, acquired in pursu- 
ing the initiatory steps. But there is one error, which 
runs more or less through the whole system ; viz., the 
charging the memory with words instead of ideas. In 
all studies, there is too much of what is called, commit- 
ting to memory. This is an error, however, which, it is 
believed, will disappear, as soon as a more rational plan 
is adopted, of teaching the fundamental branches. When 
5 



50 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

the mind shall be developed and disciplined, by a proper 
mode of acquiring reading and arithmetic, the folly of 
attaching value to the mere repetition of words will be 
generally seen and acknowledged. 



CHAPTER VI. 

MORAL EDUCATION. 

Alas ! what a blank is here ! How little, how very 
little, has even been attempted, towards developing and 
giving a proper direction to the social affections and moral 
feelings of early youth ! And yet, when we examine 
with care the httle that has been done ; when we see 
with what crude notions, nay, even with what false prin- 
ciples, the instructers of early youth have come to their 
important task ; we feel inclined to ask, whether it would 
not have been better, that nothing had been done ; that the 
whole subject had been left unoccupied. For, with what 
sordid, mercenary motives, have young children been in- 
cited to the love and practice of virtue ! One is praised 
for goodness, and rewarded with a doll; another, with 
*' books with prints in them ;" a third, with sweetmeats. 
In one school-book, we are told that " the boys thought 
how good James and George were, to give them part of 
their cakes, and said, they would share with them, when 
they had good things, too. Were not James and George 
good boys ?" In another, there is an account of a good 
boy assisting a dog, a half-starved horse, and a blind man, 
in the morning, who, in the evening, cooperate to rescue 
him from thieves. In a third, where a story is related of 
a dishonest boy punished by a broken leg, and honest 
Harry rewarded with a hat-full of apples, it is wound up 
by the statement, that ' ' Harry carried the fruit to his 
mother, and told her, he was now convinced that children 
were always happiest when they did right." Now, what 
kind of moral perceptions can be expected from youth, 
who, in their tender years, have been fed merely by such 



MORAL EDUCATION. 51 

trash as this. Nothing but tangible rewards and punish- 
ments ! Good for good, evil for evil ! Is this the spirit 
of the Gospel of Christ ? " Do not even the publicans 
the same ?" Is it any thing more than one of the innu- 
merable forms of selfishness ? the mere spirit of trade ? a 
m.ere barter of benevolence ? Every one, at all conver- 
sant with the state of infancy, must be aware, that nothing 
of the raercantile spirit is to be found there. Children 
are naturally selfish ; that is, they think only of them- 
selves, or, rather, know little of others ; but what they do 
give, they give freely, without price. Whilst endeavor- 
ing to correct this selfish spirit, then, let us be careful not 
to instil a worse. Let us not dig up the soil, and plant 
it with thistles. Much higher motives than these can be 
appreciated by very young children. They can as readily 
perceive the beauty and dignity of goodness as we can. 
They need not the stimulus, either of praise or rewards, 
to excite them to well-doing. Show them a noble exam- 
ple, and they will instantly follow it. Shall we not, then, 
try to prolong, a little, this beautiful state of artlessness ; 
to make a few better impressions, before we initiate them 
into the world of traffic ? Is there not too much of the 
mercantile spirit in the community ? Is it not disgusting, 
to see a child calculating to a day the period of his ma- 
jority, when his parents shall have no longer a claim on 
his services ^ To see parents and children, who dwell 
in one house, eating at different tables ? brothers and sis- 
ters, bargaining closely, like utter strangers ? husband and 
wife, with separate purses ? 

Again, when dissuasives from vice are wanted, with 
what trickery and deceit are children assailed ! We have 
seen, above, the dishonest boy punished with a broken 
leg, as if the good and bad were not alike subject to such 
casualties ; and, in the same spirit, one of our most pop- 
ular spelling-books commences the reading lessons with 
she following sentence : 

" A dog met a bad boy, and bit him." 

This is the genuine old-fashioned style of frightening 
'nto obedience ; a practice still so prevalent, that it is 



52 THE teacher's manual. 

not uncommon to hear a mere child using similar threats 
to his juniors : so readily do they copy our bad exam- 
ples. The trick may answer a momentary purpose ; but 
what sort of impression must the child receive, when he 
finds, as assuredly, sooner or later, he must, that he has 
been deceived by his parents or moral instructers ? A 
powerful modern writer says, that " a father is the young 
child's deity." Alas ! that his implicit confidence should 
so soon be rooted out ! 

We have, in our country, talents of the very first or- 
der. Could they be devoted to a nobler purpose, than to 
rescue youth from such moral bunglers as these ? Could 
that be considered degrading employment, to genius of the 
highest rank, which would tend to elevate the whole com- 
munity in the scale of virtue .'' Sometimes, it is true, we 
are told that the Bible is all-sufficient for this purpose. 
But surely this is a mistaken view of things. God, in 
his wisdom, has provided materials, in abundance, for the 
food of man ; but nowhere, in the temperate climes, are 
spontaneous products superior to crabs and sloes. In 
vain may the sun shine, and the dews of heaven descend, 
on the most fertile soil. Unless the skill and industry of 
the husbandman be exerted, it will bring forth little else 
than thorns and. thistles. , In like manner has the bounty 
of Providence supplied all sorts of materials for the cloth- 
ing of man ; but in no case whatever are they fitted for 
use. It is the same in the moral world. In his various 
revelations, God has furnished all the elements of virtue ; 
but man is required to exert his intelligence, ere the 
precious fruits of goodness can be formed and ripened. 
And, in fact, it is only theoretically, that this is denied. 
Practically, it is admitted by all. Else, why so vast 
an apparatus of colleges and theological seminaries ; of 
churches and preachers ; of commentaries, tracts, and 
sermons ? No ! the Bible is not, of itself, sufficient. 
All the great truths are here ; but its moral lessons re- 
quire to be expanded and applied. They must be brought 
to bear on all the various situations in which it is possible 
for man to be placed ; and, above all, its language must 
be accommodated to the opening faculties, the unripened 



MORAL EDUCATION. 53 

intellect, of early youth. O ! how sweet, how blessed, 
will be the memory of the pioneer, who shall first sow the 
genuine seeds of duty and happiness in the virgin soil of 
infancy ; who, in stories, written in a style equally pure 
and simple, shall exhibit, by suitable examples^ entirely 
devoid of authoritative dogmas, the beauty of Virtue, the 
deformity of Vice ; shall awaken in the youthful soul the 
delights of the social affections ; inspire it with gratitude 
and piety ; with frankness, generosity, and forbearance 
under injuries ; with resignation, humility, and fortitude ; 
and, above all, with a sacred regard for Truth ! It is 
through SCHOOL-BOOKS and schools only, that a genu- 
ine REFORMATION Can blcss the world. The seeds 
sown from the pulpit fall among thorns ; "and are choked 
with cares, and riches, and pleasures, of this life, and 
bring no fruit to perfection."* 

These remarks, it will readily be perceived, apply only 
in the case of early youth. There is no lack of moral trea- 
tises, or moral lectures, for manhood, or even for the 
more advanced stages of youth. But these come too late. 
The passions, and the sordid animal appetites and pro- 
pensities, of our nature, having remained unchecked since 
infancy, have thus been yearly adding strength to strength ; 
and the conscience, led astray by these powerful emo- 
tions, and obscured and darkened, from want of exercise, 
either fails to respond at all, or answers wrong, when ap- 
pealed to. No ! if we would have our youth habituated 
to attend to the Divine Light within, what Bacon beau- 
tifully calls the '' sparkle of the purity of man's first estate," 
it must be developed and cultivated in infancy. The 
Christian poet, Cowper, observes, that, 

" In early days the conscience has, in most, 
A quickness which, in later life, is lost.'^ — 

Tirocinium, 1. 109, 110. 

And the best of all authority assures us, that "of swc/i is 
the kingdom of Heaven. " How important, then, that this 
state of comparative innocence should be preserved ; that 
conscience, while in its purity, should be awakened and 

* Luke viii. 14. 
5* 



54 

cherished ; and that our youth, from their most tender 
age, should be habituated to consult it on every occasion ; 
and not only to consult it, but to listen to its monitions ; 
for, if we summon conscience, and neglect her dictates, 
we only harden ourselves in guilt. The bane of educa- 
tion, in all its branches, is the absurd practice of neglect- 
ing the first steps, of allowing bad habits to spring up, and 
become a part of our nature, in the illusory hope of root- 
ing them out, in after life. Alas, it is then, indeed, a 
labor dire and weary wo. In some instances, doubtless, 
it may be effected ; but, in all cases, the eradication is im- 
perfect ; and, in most, the attempt is a total failure. It is 
both shorter and easier, to proceed from ignorance to 
knowledge, than from error. They, who are in the last, 
must unlearn^ before they can learn to any good pur- 
pose ; and the first part of this double task is, by far, the 
most irksome and difficult, for which reason, it is seldom 
undertaken. 



CHAPTER VII. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Hitherto, gentle reader, our journey together has 
been almost wholly over rough acclivities, with but little 
to reheve the weariness of the ascent. Having now, 
however, reached the top, before we descend into the 
more pleasing and more flowery vale before us, it may, 
perhaps, be profitable, to take a retrospective view of 
our past labors, and inquire, what are their results. May 
we not conclude, then, 

I. That the School is not the only place, where our 
youth receive instruction ; but that, indirectly, they derive 
much of their education from 

1. Observation and Experience. 

2. The Conversation and Example of their 

parents and companions. 



RECAPITULATION. 56 

3. Public Opinion, or Tradition. 

4. Public Worship. 

5. The Town Meeting. 

6. The District School Meeting. 

7. The Judicial Establishments. 

II. That our Direct Instruction, or School Education, 
is weak, trifling, and of small extent, compared with our 
Indirect Instruction. 

III. That, in Physical Education, Nature is our great 
instructress, and that our duty is chiefly negative ; name- 
ly, to deviate as little as possible from the course she 
indicates. 

IV. That the unnecessary confinement, to which the 
child is subjected in early life, is alike prejudicial to his 
physical powers, and to the developeraent of his intellec- 
tual faculties. 

V. That the location and internal arrangement of most 
of our schoolhouses are highly objectionable, tending to 
enervate the mind, as well as to weaken the bodies of our 
youth. 

VI. That the imperfect qualification of our teachers 
arises, in a great measure, from the fact, that, owing to the 
plan of alternating male and female teachers in the Winter 
and Summer schools, it is impossible for either to gain a 
support from the profession. 

VII. That, in order to induce females properly to 
qualify themselves, permanent situations must be provided 
for them, in the primary schools. , 

VIII. That the waste of time, by the pupils, and 
other inconveniences, arising from the perpetual change 
of teachers, occasion a serious loss to the community. 

IX. That Seminaries for Teachers too often mistake 
the object of their institution, by endeavoring to extend 
the knowledge of their students to the higher branches of 
learning, instead of imparting to them the art of teaching. 

X. That the Discipline of schools is defective, either 
by being too lax and wavering, or, when sufficiently strict, 
by not allowing frequent intermissions, at stated periods ; 
also, by the vulgar practices of the teacher, and by too fre- 
quent recurrence to scolding and brute force. 



66 THE teacher's manual. 

XL That the initiatory branches of education are, by 
far, the most important ; and yet, that they are those which 
are generally intrusted to the most incompetent instruc- 
tors . 

XII. That the pernicious habit of mental wandering, or 
reading one thing while thinking of another, naturally arises 
from the synthetic mode of teaching reading. 

XIII. That, by the analytic method, this pernicious 
habit is avoided, while, at the same time, the progress of 
the pupil is much more rapid. 

XIV. That experience shows, that the oral method 
of teaching orthography is deceptive, and generally fails 
to produce good spellers. 

XV. That the mode of teaching reading, by means of 
spelling, is absurd, and highly pernicious. 

XVI. That writing, as taught in our district schools, 
generally eventuates in a stiff, cramp hand. 

XVII. That the fundamental processes of arithmetic 
are seldom properly taught, or sufficiently practised ; that 
the general arrangement of the subject is defective ; and 
that the different modes of abbreviation are not pointed 
out. 

XVIII. That the important advantages, w^hich might 
be derived from the practice of mental arithmetic, are gen- 
erally lost, by the mode in which it is studied. 

XIX. That the practice of committing words to memo- 
ry^ instead of acquiring ideas, is still too general in the 
study of the higher branches of learning. 

XX. That the subject of moral education is sadly 
neglected in schools, and the little, that is attempted, gen- 
erally founded on false principles. 

XXI. That it is through school-books and schools, 
only, that a genuine Reformation can be effected in the 
community. 



THE TEACHER'S MANUAL. 



PART II 



" Theoriarum vires, arctaet quasi semutuo sustinente partiuni adap- 
tione, qua, quasi in orbem cohserent, firmantur."* — Bacon. 

" I shall not detain you longer in the demonstration of what we 
should not do ; but straight conduct you to a hill-side, where I will 
point ye out the right path of a virtuous and noble education, laborious, 
indeed, at the first ascent, but also so smooth, so green, so full of good- 
ly prospect and melodious sounds, that the harp of Orpheus was not 
more charming." — Milton. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Having now accomplished the unpleasant and invidi- 
ous, but not less important and necessary, duty, of point- 
ing out the principal errors and deficiencies of the present 
system of Popular Education, the more pleasing task re- 
mains, of constructing a new and more perfect system of 
instruction. In the performance of this duty, although 
we shall consider ourselves completely unrestricted in 
the choice of materials, yet shall we sedulously endeavor 
to guard against the error of seeking after mere novelties. 
Whatever, therefore, is truly valuable in the old system 
shall be retained ; but nothing, whether new or old, shall 

* The strength of a theory depends greatly on the mutual adapta- 
tion and adhesion of its parts ; like an arch, the several portions of 
which reciprocally strengthen and support each other. 



58 

be adopted, without a thorough examination into its sound- 
ness and fitness. 

In this second part, we shall endeavor to preserve the 
same arrangement of subjects, so far as it shall be con- 
venient and practicable, divided, as before, into the three 
heads of Physical, Intellectual, and Moral, Education. 

Under the head of Physical Education, will be noticed 
the division of towns into school districts ; the gradation 
of schools ; the size, situation, and ornamenting, of school 
lots ; the construction and internal arrangement of school- 
houses, with plans for warming and ventilating them ; 
school terms and school hours ; and discipline ; all of 
which will be found to have an important bearing on the 
health. 

In treating of Intellectual Education, teachers' semina- 
ries and the qualifications of teachers will form an im- 
portant item ; and the best modes of conducting studies, 
especially in the primary schools, will receive a full dis- 
cussion. 

In the uncultivated region of Moral Education for 
schools, where 

" The world is all before us, where to choose," 

while we shall use our best endeavors, so to direct our 
steps, as to execute all that our weak efforts are capable 
of accomplishing, we shall be equally watchful to avoid 
even the slightest appearance of evil. As adventurous 
pioneers in this great wilderness, we shall try to select a 
fertile spot, such as shall not only produce abundantly for 
present use, but which, at the same time, may form a not 
ahogether useless corner, at a future period, when the 
whole region shall blossom as a garden. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 59 

CHAPTER II. 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

Formation of Districts. 

The proper division of a town into districts is a mat- 
ter of considerable importance, particularly in thinly set- 
tled neighborhoods, where a great temptation exists to 
multiply them too much, in order to have the schoolhouse 
sufficiently near to accommodate the younger branches 
of families. In such cases, it should never be forgotten, 
that it is infinitely better to have a good school, which, 
with the exception of vacations for a few weeks in 
Spring and Autumn, shall be kept permanently, though 
at a considerable distance, than to have a poor school 
close at hand, and kept but for six or eight months in the 
year. Even should it be too far off for children under 
six years of age, all their time will not be lost, though it 
be spent in nothing but harmless amusement. They will 
acquire strength of body, and their knowledge and love 
of Nature will be all the while constantly on the increase. 
If, in addition, the mother, or an elder sister or brother, 
should spend only ten or fifteen minutes a day, in teach- 
ing them to read in a judicious manner, and showing them 
how to hold a pencil, so that they may scribble on their 
slates at pleasure, such children will probably overtake 
most of those who have attended school from the most 
tender age.* 

Care should be taken, however, not to run into the 

* Dr. Humphrey, President of Amherst College, in his ' Thoughts 
on Education,' observes, " I am strongly impressed with the belief, 
that, if the experiment could be fairly tried upon a great scale, those 
infants that are rightly managed in other respects, but who do not 
know^ a letter, till they are five years old, would ultimately surpass, 
both in strength and acquirements, such as begin their studies two or 
three years earlier. I have no doubt, that ten of the latter are serious- 
ly injured, both in body and mind, by taxing the brain too early, where 
one of the former suffers in his education, by not commencing early 
enough." 



60 

opposite extreme. One mile should be the greatest dis- 
tance from the primary schoolhouse to the furthest house 
in the district. Such a district might probably be about 
one and a half miles square, containing about two and one 
fourth square miles. A town of six miles square would, 
therefore, contain sixteen. If a district of this size could 
not support a good permanent female school, with the 
assistance it received from the pubhc funds, a larger 
amount should be furnished by the town, or, rather, by 
the State. 

The manner, in which school-funds are distributed in 
New England, under the appearance of the most rigid 
equality, is, in reality, exceedingly disproportionate and 
unjust. Such distributions are generally made per capita ; 
that is, in proportion to the number of scholars in a dis- 
trict. But, surely, the intention of the Legislature must 
have been, to put all, as far as practicable, on an equal 
footing, as to the means of education, and not the grant- 
ing an equal sum of money to each child. And yet it 
requires but a moment's consideration to perceive, that 
one dollar, in one situation, will go as far as five, in 
another. In practice, then, it would appear, that the 
object of the Legislature, in dealing equally with all, is 
completely frustrated. 

Nor is this all. Not only are great numbers of the 
poorer classes injured, in their future prospects, by this 
partiality, but the whole community suffer by the pro- 
cedure. A tax for the support of education can only be 
justified on the principle, that it is essential to the safety 
of the State, that all should be enlightened. What, 
then, shall we think of the government of an intelligent 
commonwealth, like Massachusetts for instance, which 
shall raise a tax of nearly half a million of dollars, annually, 
for her schools, and yet allow it to be so partially distrib- 
uted, that in some portions of the State education shall 
be thorough, in others almost wholly inefficient ? The 
same remark holds good of every State, in which this 
mode of distributing school money prevails. But are 
not the inhabitants of Boston, Portsmouth, Hartford, 
Burlington, and of every rich and populous town, inter- 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 61 

ested in having the benefits of education extended to the 
poorer, and hitherto neglected, corners of our land ? Shall 
such spots be suffered to become pestiferous little nests 
for rearing dupes for demagogues and impostors, nurse- 
ries for the inmates of penitentiaries and poor-houses ? 
Surely not. Whatever our Legislatures can do, at all, 
they can and ought to do, properly and effectually. A 
very slight addition to the tax for education would entire- 
ly remove this serious difiiculty. In most States, in fact, 
it might probably be effected without any additional tax, 
by a slight change in the mode of distribution.* 

In the more thickly-settled parts of the country, and 
in the villages, it may not be necessary to have the dis- 
tricts quite so large as in the more sparsely-settled spots. 
But even there, it will be found unprofitable to have them 
small. For, if the schoolhouse be properly constructed, 
and of sufficient size, great advantages would arise from 
liaving a large number of scholars together. Let us sup- 
pose, for instance, that there are two hundred children 
under twelve years of age, in a district not too large for 
conveniently collecting them into one building. This 
number would be enough for what would be considered 
four large schools ; and, in fact, four teachers, in separ- 
ate establishments, could scarcely do them justice. But, 
so great are the advantages of a division of labor, that 
the same number of teachers in one school of two hun- 
dred would be abundantly competent to their task, and 
the school would be much more efficient, than one with 
a single teacher, even with not more than thirty scholars. 
For such a school as has been mentioned, besides a room 
large enough to hold all, with convenience, there should 
be three recitation rooms. In one of those, a teach- 
er should be exclusively occupied with the younger read- 
ing classes ; in the next room, another teacher, with the 
older reading classes ; in the third, should be the recita- 
tions of geography and arithmetic, with illustrations on 

* The Legislature of Vermont have, in their present session, (Octo- 
ber, 18.39,) made a slight approximation to equality, by directing that 
one fourth of the public money for schools should be distributed equal- 
ly among the districts, and the remaining three fourths, per capita. 



62 THE teacher's manual. 

the blackboard. The fourth teacher should attend to 
the discipline and general arrangement of the school, and 
overlook the writing exercises and arithmetical operations 
on the slate, in the large hall. That such an arrange- 
ment would be very much superior to those in our com- 
mon schools, is evident, from the fact, that each teach- 
er would be almost exclusively confined to one branch, 
and that, the recitation rooms being separate, the studies 
could be pursued without the slightest hindrance. 

Of the arrangements necessary for the scholars of 
twelve years of age, and over, we shall presently speak. 

Gradation of Schools. 

The evils, arising from the present system of alterna- 
ting male and female schools, have already been noticed, 
[Part I, Chap, iv.] The following plan for a gradation 
of schools will, it is beheved, not only obviate these 
evils, but place our whole system of education on a more 
efficient footing. 

Let a female school be kept in every district, through- 
out the year, with the exception of two short vacations ; 
the teachers being engaged, not for any specific time, but 
as long as both parties remain suited. Let the studies, 
in such schools, be confined to reading, writing, compo- 
sition, (which, of course, includes orthography, and a 
certain extent of grammar, and the structure of senten- 
ces,) arithmetic, and geography. Let these be consid- 
ered as the primary schools, through which every child 
must, of necessity, pass, to prepare himself for a differ- 
ent series of studies, in a higher grade of schools, to be 
called Central, or High Schools. Of these, let there be 
one, or, in large, populous towns, two, in each town. 
Generally, these central schools would only be kept dur- 
ing the Winter ; though some of the larger villages might, 
perhaps, afford them employment throughout the year. 
In such cases, additional assistants would be wanted dur- 
ing the Winter season, when the larger children of the 
farmers, &c., would generally attend. To prevent the 
younger children, who lived convenient to those central 
schools, from pressing in, too soon, and, at the same time, 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 63 

to avoid the invidiousness of preliminary examinations, it 
would be well to adopt, as an undeviating rule, that no 
instruction should be given in the branches taught in the 
primary schools, excepting in composition, which should 
be attended to, on a more extended scale, one afternoon 
in the week. 

The central schools should be considered as town 
schools, and, of course, should be partially supported by 
a proportion of the public funds from all the districts. It 
would not be proper, however, that these contributions 
should be in an equal ratio. They should be adjusted 
on some principle favoring the districts, in proportion to 
their distance from the schoolhouse. It would scarcely 
be practicable to suggest a rule, that would apply, fairly, 
in all cases ; but something like the following might,^ 
probably, be satisfactory in the greater number : — Let 
such neighborhoods, (within certain limits,) as would 
agree to furnish the schoolhouse, or make the most liber- 
al offer towards that item of expense, have the right of 
fixing the site, and also have the use of the building for 
purposes not inconsistent with its character, when not 
occupied as a school. With respect to the other expen- 
ses, that part of the teachers' wages, not paid by the pub- 
lic money, might be raised by an equal tax on the schol- 
ars ; while, in addition, the expense of board might be 
defrayed by those living within one mile of the school- 
house, and of the fuel by those within from one to two 
miles. The more distant families would thus be com- 
pensated for the inconvenience of their remoteness, by 
their exemption from these expenses. Besides, as the 
children would not probably be prepared for the central 
school, till about the age of twelve, the increased dis- 
tance would then be a matter of but trifling moment. 

Attached to the central schoolhouse, there should al- 
ways be a long shed, for the accommodation of the teams 
of the distant families, who would probably make some 
arrangement to furnish such a convenience, by turns ; 
while those, who were unprovided, might pay a reasonable 
portion of its expense, by their labor. The schoolhouse 
itself should be on a scale sufficiently large, to admit of 



64 

a few lodging-rooms for those female pupils, whose health 
might be too delicate to go, daily, to their distant homes. 
Here, with trifling inconvenience, and without any ad- 
ditional expense, save the transport of their provision and 
a little necessary furniture from home, they might board 
themselves. But the boys should, in all cases, return 
home ; as it is more important, that they should be un- 
der the eye of their parents, and as they, generally, have 
more or less morning and evening duties to perform. 

The distance from the furthest corner of the town would 
probably, in no case, exceed four or five miles. Should 
there be any pupils to whom it might be inconvenient to 
furnish means of conveyance, daily ^ it might easily be 
arranged, that they should have longer tasks, and attend 
the school for recitation, only two or three times a week. 
And, if their leisure time was properly spent at home, it 
is highly probable, that improvement would be more rap- 
id, under such an arrangement, than where the school 
was attended constantly. For it would certainly have the 
tendency, in most cases, to induce habits of patient per- 
severance, and confidence in one's own exertions, — habits 
of much more importance than the mere attainment of 
science. In all schools, there is too much leaning on the 
teacher, too little patient research and self-dependence. 

As the languages and higher branches of mathematics 
should be taught in the central schools, it would be ne- 
cessary to have a gentleman of liberal education at its 
head ; but, probably, so great has been the improvement 
of female education within a few years, there would be 
little difficulty of procuring a sufficiency of well-qualified 
assistants of that sex. 

The advantages arising from this plan of graduating 
the schools are fourfold : 1. Its tendency to produce a 
body of capable^ experienced^ female teachers. 2. Its 
efficiency. 3. Its economy. 4. Its equality. 

1. Its tendency to produce a body of capable, experi- 
enced, female teachers. In the fourth chapter of the pre- 
ceding part of this work, it was shown, that, in the 
country parts of New England, owing to the prevailing 
system of alternating male and female schools, there was. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 65 

literally, no such profession as that of teacher. The 
central school system, if generally adopted, would soon 
remove this evil, so far as female teachers are concerned. 
In every district, we should have a permanent female 
school ; and, when it is considered what immense num- 
bers of young women flock to the manufacturing estab- 
lishments, there cannot be a reasonable doubt, that these 
much more eligible and independent situations would soon 
be filled by well-qualified incumbents. Only create a de- 
mand for teachers, and a steady supply will soon be ob- 
tained. As to the central schools, these situations may 
be conveniently filled from the senior classes of the col- 
leges, whose vacations are generally arranged with a view 
to Winter teaching. 

2. Its efficiency. Surely, no argument can be neces- 
sary to demonstrate the superior efficiency of this plan. 
It is apparent, at the first glance, that the younger classes 
will be highly benefited by a permanent school, conduc- 
ted by a teacher educated with a view to that employ- 
ment, and who will, consequently, devote to it her whole 
attention ; a teacher, who will have an opportunity of be- 
coming acquainted with the various dispositions and char- 
acters of her pupils, — a knowledge so necessary to suc- 
cessful tuition, — and time to apply that knowledge to their 
benefit ; advantages, which temporary teachers can never 
possess. The younger classes will also be relieved from 
the intrusion of the elder classes in Winter, a circum- 
stance which will, at least, double the efficiency of the 
school for that season of the year. But its main effi- 
ciency will arise from its permanency. During the first 
weeks of a school, children cannot study with the same 
facility, nor are they able to make the same progress, as 
afterwards. Even men cannot rally and apply their 
whole mental forces, on the first day of commencing an 
unaccustomed work. Hence, a change of teachers is, of 
itself, a great misfortune. Teacher and pupils must be- 
come acquainted with one another ; they must understand 
one another's powers and ways, before the school can ad- 
vance. Besides, females are by far the best teachers of 
young children. They have more quick apprehension 
6* 



66 

of character, more enduring patience, more expansive 
benevolence, higher purity, more dehcate taste, and more 
elevated moral feelings, than men ; and, above all, the 
young more willingly and readily receive instruction from 
them, because the severity of discipHne is relieved by 
their tenderness and affection. In the central school, the 
older children will find well-qualified teachers, whose at- 
tention will not be distracted by such a multiplicity of 
studies, as now occupy their attention in the Winter 
schools, and will, therefore, be able to devote their un- 
divided attention to the higher branches. The pupils, 
too, can pursue their studies with much greater ease and 
effect, when uninterrupted by the constantly-recurring 
recitations of beginners. 

3. Its economy. On this head, it is only necessary to 
remark, that, by the employment, in Winter, of only one 
or two men, with a sufficient number of female teachers, 
instead of fifteen or twenty men, as at present, such a 
saving will be effected, as will enable the districts to keep 
their primary schools ten months in the year, and pay two 
teachers in the central school, without any increase of the 
expense of tuition. 

Let us suppose, for instance, that a town was divided 
into sixteen districts, in each of which, a female school 
was kept for four months in Summer, and a man's school 
three months in Winter ; and that the wages paid, were 
six dollars for the female, and fifteen dollars for the male, 
school. This, for the sixteen districts, would be, 

64 months, female school, at $6 . . $384 
48 " male " 15 . . 720 

$1104 

This amount, applied to the central school system, 
would give, in every district, say ten months school : 

160 months, at $6 $960 

4 months, central school, at $25 . 100 
4 " assistant to do. . 11 . 44 

$1104 
Thus, the younger children would have ten months' in 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 67 

place of seven months' schooling, and the elder pupils a 
first rate school, by themselves, for four months, in place 
of a wretched, crowded one, for three months. 

4. Its equality. At present, the advantages of educa- 
tion are distributed in a manner exceedingly unequal. 
By the proposed plan, with the exception of college 
graduates, we should approach, as nearly as possible, to a 
state of equality ; and, what is still better, all would be 
loell educated, and at a rate so low, as could hardly be 
felt by the poorest member of the community.* 

Such are a few of the advantages of the Central School 
System. When they are compared with the only disad- 
vantage, which, it is believed, can attend it, namely, the 
increased distance of some of the older scholars, how 
completely does the latter sink into insignificance ! 

Ye genuine philanthropists and true patriots ! your as- 
sistance is invoked, towards carrying into operation this 
most important measure, which only waits for a com- 
mencement, to spread, rapidly, through our country. If, 
by your advice, influence, and example, you can hasten 
the formation of a body of capable and experienced fe- 
male teachers, you will do more for your country, than 
if you were to be the means of discovering the rich- 
est mines of gold and silver within her territory ; you will 
confer greater benefits on your countrymen, than by 
pointing out new sources of trade, more easy and rapid 
means of intercommunication, or new principles of prac- 
tical science. Such a body, weak as it may appear, will 
operate as an impregnable wall of defence, alike against 
external and internal foes. It will be the surest stay for 
our invaluable political institutions ; the radical cure for 

* The above plan of a graduation of the public schools, was first 
publicly proposed by me, in the Spring of 1830, and endeavors made 
to obtain the legislative sanction, in the Autumn of that year. The 
novelty of its provisions, however, by exciting the fears of some, and the 
prejudices of others, caused its failure in that, and in two other, sessions. 
It has steadily continued to gain friends, however, and will probably 
soon be authorized by law. Meanwhile, the Legislature of Massachu- 
setts have taken up the subject, and deprived us of the honor of its 
first introduction, by sanctioning it in that intelligent and powerful 
State, where, it is to be hoped, its provisions will soonhave-a fair trial. 



68 

intemperance and vice ; an effectual remedy for political 
and religious fanaticism ; and a certain means of putting 
a final stop to all sorts of quackery and imposture. May 
not your countenance and aid be relied on, in this holy 
cause ? Do not suffer the coldness, with which your first 
efforts will be met by the community, to discourage you. 
There is a natural propensity in man, to cling to estab- 
lished institutions, and reverence hereditary usages, which 
was wisely ordained by the Creator, to give stability to 
the forms of society. But this disposition, although, 
perhaps, it thus contributes more to the good than to the 
evil of the' race, should not be blindly yielded to, by the 
more intelligent. For it also serves to perpetuate every 
species of error, and to retard the progress of society to- 
wards the highest and best condition of which the nature 
of man is capable. It has been well remarked, '' that it 
is an encouraging observation, that no good measure was 
ever proposed, which, if duly pursued^ failed to prevail 
in the end." We have a strong proof of this, in the ef- 
forts made to suppress the slave-trade and extirpate 
slavery, in the British Parliament. Mr. Wilberforce agi- 
tated this subject for twenty or thirty years, before he 
was able to carry his point. But he had the exquisite 
happiness, before his death, to see slavery completely 
abolished, and that dark stain wiped away from the isles 
of the West. May this striking example of the effects of 
perseverance not be lost upon us ; may it encourage us 
to obedience to the Bible precept, " Let us not be iceary 
in well-doing."* 

In our endeavors to do good, however, let us be par- 
ticularly careful not to injure the cause, by the hasty 
adoption of half-way measures. The grand object should 
be, to engage the toion^ not a few individual districts, in 
the measure. If the community, in which we reside, will 
not, at once, accede to the plan, it would be well, care- 
fully to consider, whether it would not be preferable to 
postpone operations, until public sentiment can be recti- 
fied on the subject, rather than precipitately engage in 

* Gal. vi. 9. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 69 

measures, which, although good in themselves, and, per- 
haps, the best that can be done for the present, may yet 
prove an obstacle to future complete success. Festina 
lente : we frequently get along fastest, by moving slowly. 
Let us weigh the matter well. If we gather together the 
more intelligent and richer districts only, the measure 
fails where it is most needed ; for it is much to be feared, 
that the others will thus be permanently excluded, and, be- 
ing too much scattered to form a union among themselves, 
our system of permanent schools will be on too small a 
scale, to exert much beneficial influence on the whole peo- 
pie. We shall have a part of our youth well educated ; 
but, all around us, will be scattered those pestiferous 
nests of ignorance and vice, already alluded to. No ! In 
commencing the glorious work of reforming the commu- 
nity through the medium of the schools, let us determine 
to take high grounds. O ! let us not allow selfish mo- 
tives to urge us either to precipitancy, or to the adoption 
of contracted views. Let us wait with patience, till our 
little community is fully prepared ; at the same time 
taking every legitimate course to hasten this preparation. 
Wherever tw^o or three are met together, let the subject 
be canvassed ; at the town and district meeting, as well 
as in private society ; let it be discussed in public lec- 
tures ; and, above all, let that powerful engine, the press, 
be wielded in its behalf. Let our flag have this motto, 
and let it be nailed to the mast : A permanent school in 
every district for the smaller scholars ; one [or two'] good 
central schools for the older classes.* 

* In New England, towns generally contain about thirty-six square 
miles ; and therefore should, and probably do, have from twelve to twen- 
ty schoolhouses. But it appears from the abstract of the Massachusetts 
School Returns, for 1837, that the average number in that State does 
not exceed ten schools in a town, and that a considerable number 
of towns contain from two to seven districts only. In these small 
towns, of course, some modification of the central school system would 
be necessary, before all its advantages could be realized. In some 
situations, there might be a union of two towns, in respect to the cen- 
tral school. This plan, however, could not, perhaps, be adopted in all 
cases ; as it is probable, that some natural impediment has given rise 
to those minute subdivisions of territory. In the worst possible case, 
however, where a school for the larger children could not be support- 



70 THE teacher's MANUAL. 



CHAPTER III. 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 

School Lots. 

It would be unreasonable to expect, that all the fol- 
lowing suggestions on the subject of school lots and 
schoolhouses, however much they may be approved, 
will be universally, or even generally, carried into effect. 
In many instances, poverty will be pleaded as the excuse. 
But this cannot be an available plea. For, where the 
district is poor, the land is generally of trifling value ; 
and, as to the slight difference of expense between a 
good and a wretched schoolhouse, it certainly is not to 
be put in competition with the health of the children. 
Leaving entirely out of view the intellectual and moral 
evils connected with the inferior building, true economy 
would dictate the erection of a good structure, sufficient- 
ly spacious for the evolutions of the school and the 
health of its inmates. 

Our duty, however, is in no wise altered by this cir- 
cumstance. If only afeio school lots be arranged, el few 
schoolhouses be constructed, in a better taste than for- 
merly, our design will be, in a great measure, accomplish- 
ed. For the constant tendency of mankind is towards 
improvement. We never go backward. And it requires 
only a few good models, scattered through the country, 
to bring about, in a very short time, a manifest change 
for the better, every where. 

School lots should always be in a pleasant and health- 

ed, independently of the primary schools, great benefit would still 
result from the substitution of a permanent female school, instead of 
the alternating system. There can be no doubt, that, under a compe- 
tent permanent instructress, the pupils would be better educated be- 
fore they arrived at the age of twelve, than they now are altogether. 
If there be any districts really unable to support a female school ten 
months in the year, they ought to receive the necessary assistance from 
the State treasury. Suicidal, indeed, would be the policy that would 
refuse it. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 71 

fui situation, and never less than half an acre in extent. 
The public road is, surely, a very improper, in fact, dan- 
gerous, place, for large groups of children at play ; and 
yet, if there be no ground attached to the schoolhouse, 
they must either use that, or trespass on the neighboring 
property, — a temptation to which we should be careful 
not to expose our youth, especially at school, where ev- 
ery evil influence should be sedulously avoided. By all 
means, then, let them have hberal space for exercise and 
amusement. 

The lot should be enclosed by a neat and substantial 
fence, with two or three openings, sufficiently large to ad- 
mit a man, yet narrow enough to exclude cattle. There 
should be a gate, or a part of the fence should be so con- 
structed as to admit of being taken down in Winter, to 
admit teams with wood, and a horse and snow-plough,* 
to clear a passage from the highway to the schoolhouse 
door. The lot may be ornamented with a row of trees 
inside the fence, and two or three small, irregular groups 
of the handsomest native forest trees, scattered, without 
order, in the grounds. 

On the south side of the schoolhouse, there should be 
a border of flowers ; and the east and west sides of the 
building should be decorated with roses and honeysuckles. 
It would be well, to have this little spot of cultivated 
ground covered with straw and boards, in Winter, and, 
every Spring, dug up and well manured by the commit- 
tee, leaving the after-culture to be managed by the schol- 
ars, under the direction of the teacher. In the lot, there 
should be a circular swing, f and a few poles and ladders 
for gymnastic exercises. 

These little accommodations for the children will pro- 

• A snow-plough may be made of two pieces of plank eight or ten feet long, 
Joined at an acute angle, with one or two round sticks passing through, to 
strengthen them. A horse, attached to the apex, will clear off the snow in a 
few minutes. 

t The circular swing ia made, by placing two horizontal beams or 
yards, at right angles to each other, on the top of an upright shaft, so 
fitted that the beams will turn easily on the shaft. From each of the 
four ends of the beams a rope is suspended, the lower ends of which 
reach to within four, five, or six feet of the ground. Four children 
seize on these ends, and run round and round, leaping and hanging bj^ 
the rope. The shaft may be twenty feet high ; the longer the beams 
or arms are, the better, as that increases the circumference of the circle. 



72 THE teacher's manual. 

bably appear trifling to many readers, and altogether un- 
worthy the notice of a writer on education. Nothing, 
however, should ever be considered a trifle, which can, 
in any measure, exert an influence on the moral character 
of youth. Children must and will have their amuse- 
ments. And it is right that it should be so ; for God 
has placed an abundance of innocent pleasures within 
our reach. Had He intended otherwise. He would never 
have decorated Nature with such splendid hues ; endovv- 
ed flowers with such delightful fragrance ; furnished us 
with the natural music of the grove ; nor given us tastes, 
which can be gratified without the slightest rebuke from 
the conscience. But, unfortunately, when left entirely 
to themselves, youth will frequently engage in amusements, 
hurtful to the temper, leading to gambling habits, or con- 
nected with cruelty to the brute creation. Such are 
games of violent competition, or of chance ; the practice 
of torturing insects, or of setting dogs, cats, and chicken- 
cocks, against each other. It is a matter of the first im- 
portance, then, that children should acquire a taste for 
the beauties of Nature ; which nothing is more likely to 
awaken, than the cultivation of plants. In another re- 
spect, its tendency Is useful. The flower-bed is a beau- 
tiful embellishment for the farmhouse ; it is one of the 
cheapest and most refined of the sensual pleasures ; tends 
to inspire a love of home ; and is seldom, if ever, con- 
nected with such as are grovelling in their essence, or 
degrading in their tendency. How^ very much more de- 
sirable is such a taste in the community, than the mean 
competition for showy and expensive furniture and dress, 
the silly aping of city fashions, which the influx of weahh 
is spreading through the land ! Were the agricultural 
population sensible of their own value and importance, 
they would set an example to the community, in place 
of copying, at second-hand, the follies of Paris and 
London. 

Construction and Internal arrangement' of Schoolhouses. 

It would be impracticable to describe a schoolhouse, 
which would serve as a model for every situation, and 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 73 

every kind of school. But some general principles may 
be laid down, which will easily admit of sufficient modi- 
fication to suit every case. 

In the first place, the building should be substantial, 
and constructed of the best materials. A good school- 
bouse adds to the value of every house and farm in the 
district, and that in a much greater ratio than the mere 
difference of expense between a good and a poor one. 
Brick or stone would be preferable, where easily to be 
l)rocured ; but, whatever be the material, let the building 
be thoroughly constructed. The form should be oblong, 
and, if possible^ one of the longer sides should front the 
south, this exposure being both warmer in Winter, and 
cooler in Summer, and affording better means for a 
steady light in the schoolroom, as will be presently 
shown. At the east or west side, should be the wood- 
shed, at least as large as the schoolhouse, so as to afford 
room for the children to exercise in, in bad weather. It 
should be closely boarded, with a window on the east or 
west, and a door on the south, to serve, also, as outer 
door to the schoolhouse. On three sides of the wood- 
house, the boards near the ground should be fixed with 
hinges, to be raised up in Summer, for a free circulation, 
to season the wood, of which a full supply of the best to 
be had (which is always the cheapest) should be laid in, 
towards the close of Winter. 

The underpinning of the schoolhouse should be stone 
and lime, to prevent the cold air affecting the floor, so as 
to chill the children's feet. The walls of the schoolroom 
should not be less than ten feet high, to prevent injury to 
the health in cold weather, when the room is shut up, from 
re-breathing the same air.* With the same view, there 
should be a constant supply of warm air flowing into the 
room, which may easily be thus obtained : Let there be a 
double bottom to the stove, the lower fitting closely to the 

* See Report of the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Educa- 
tion, on the subject of schoolhouses. It is much to be desired, that 
every State, that either possesses, or proposes to institute, a system of 
public education, should publish an edition of this admirable treatise, 
for gratuitous distribution. 
7 



74 



THE teacher's MANUAL. 



upper by the four edges, and by the flanges, marked, 1, 
2, 3, 4, 5. Let there be two openings in the back part 



o .. -- o 

1 ' / I 



of the plate ; the one at A, communicating with the out- 
ward air, by a pipe, which passes through the floor, and 
thence through the south wall ; the one at B, communi- 
cating with the schoolroom. From the above figure, 
it will be perceived, that the outward air, entering at A, 
will pass six times, lengthwise, across the hearth of the 
stove, before it passes into the room, at B. It will thus 
be sufficiently warmed, and yet, being protected, by the 
ashes, from the great heat to which the sides of the stove 
are exposed, it will not be burned, i.e. deprived of its 
oxygen, and thus rendered unfit for respiration, as air 
heated in furnaces commonly is, in a greater or less de- 
gree. By coming out at the back part, it will not be 
liable to be drawn in at the door of the stove. There 
will thus be a continual interchange of fresh, warm air, 
for the fouler air passing into the stove to supply the 
draft. The heat of this air should not be greater than 
is pleasant to the hand, being regulated, reciprocally, by 
the quantity of ashes in the stove, and, directly, by the 
intensity of the fire. Such a stove-plate as has been de- 
scribed, might be procured at any furnace. Where it 
cannot be had, its place might be supplied, in some de- 
gree, by removing the legs of the stove, and placing it on 
a small chamber of brick, furnished with openings and 
tube, as described above. But this, although better than 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 75 

receiving cold air through every crack and crevice, as at 
present, would be vastly inferior to the double-bottomed 
stove. A room, supplied with either of these contriv- 
ances, however, would be so full of air, as to cause it to 
press outwardsj besides furnishing a supply for the draft 
of the stove, instead of having cold air continually press- 
ing in. As a stove dries as well as heats the air, there 
should always be an iron basin of water standing on it, as 
a counteraction. 

The floor of the room should be horizontal, there being 
some disadvantages, and no advantages, in the amphithe- 
atrical form, if the teacher's seat be raised, so as to com- 
mand a view of the whole room. 

The arrangement of the seats, for pupils and teachers, 
should be as follows : Across each end of the schoolroom 
there should be an open space of eight or ten feet, and 
along the north and south walls, a space of three feet. 
Inside of these spaces, the desks and seats for the schol- 
ars should be placed, in parallel lines, lengthwise of the 
room, with aisles between, never having more than two 
children at a desk. One would be better. The aisles 
should be eighteen inches wide, if there be only one child 
for each desk ; three feet, if there be two. The allow- 
ance of desk-room, for each pupil, should not be less 
than eighteen inches ; two feet would be better. The 
front of the desks may form the backs of the seats. 
These backs should slope a little backwards. The seats 
should be a foot in width, not perfectly level, but a little 
lower behind. The edge of the desk should be at such 
a distance from the seat, as to allow those who write, to 
lean a little over their slate or paper, without bending the 
neck or body. The desks should not be less than eigh- 
teen inches wide. That part of the top, furthest from the 
scholar, should be level, for three or four inches ; the resi- 
due, with a slight inclination, say an inch and a half in a 
foot. There should be a shelf under the desk, for books 
and slates ; or the desk may be a box, with a cover hung 
on hinges for a lid. Into the horizontal part of the desk, 
the inkstands may be let ; so loosely, however, as to al- 
low of their being taken out to be filled ; and so deep, that 



76 

their tops will be on a level with the desks. They may 
be covered with a metallic lid, resembhng a butt-hinge, 
to rise or fall ; or, which is better, with a common shde, 
or with a flat, circular piece of pewter, having a stem 
projecting on one side, like the stem of a watch, through 
which a nail or screw may be driven, not tightly, but so 
that the cover may be made to slide over or off the ori- 
fice of the inkstand, on the nail or screw, as a hinge. 

The height of the seats should be ascertained, by the 
builder calling in children of different ages, to try them, 
before they are finally fixed, placing the younger in front. 
But, as there is a continual change in the proportion of 
different ages attending any one school, there should be 
a number of planed pieces of plank and blocks put away 
in the corner of the woodhouse, in order that the teacher 
may always be able so to arrange the seats, that every 
child may sit at his ease, an object as important, in re- 
spect to his mental improvement, as to his bodily health. 

Across that end of the room furthest from the door, 
there should be a platform four feet wide, about sixteen 
inches above the floor, in the middle of which should be 
placed the teacher's desk, with a moveable chair. Along 
the whole wall behind the teacher, should be cases for the 
library and apparatus, and also for the proper arrangement 
of the botanical and mineralogical specimens, to be collec- 
ted by the whole school. Behind the teacher's chair, the 
work of the cases, for about six feet, should be plain, to 
serve as a large blackboard ; the rest may be of pannelled 
work. The stove should stand in the middle of the space, 
at the opposite end of the room. The backs of the seats 
next the stove, should be high enough to protect the 
heads of their occupants from the heat. The stove-pipe 
should pass, horizontally, into the chimney built in the 
woodhouse, without the use of perpendicular pipe to 
roast the children's brains. If the room be properly 
finished, it will be sufficiently warmed by the stove itself, 
and the supply of heated air. Near the stove, should be 
a pail and tin cup ; and, if there be no house or spring 
near, a pump should be placed near the door. As the 
children, while at play, frequently soil their face and 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 77 

hands, economy, as it regards their books, and a decent 
regard for cleanly habits, point out the propriety of a 
basin and towel. At this end of the room, there should 
be a moveable blackboard, about three feet square. 

A clock would be a desirable article, in a conspicuous 
])art of the schoolroom, within view of the teacher's 
desk. If it struck the quarters, so much the better. 

It will have been observed, that, one end of the build- 
ing being occupied by cases^ and the other covered by 
the woodhouse, the room can be lighted only from the 
two sides. This arrangement was intentional, being con- 
sidered superior to that of hghting the room from all 
sides. Cross-lights are extremely prejudicial to the eye ; 
and a window behind the teacher would only prevent the 
pupils from seeing his countenance distinctly, without be- 
ing of material use to him. If the house has been 
placed in the best position, namely, with one of its sides 
facing the south, the light will only be from the north and 
south, the former being the steadiest possible, and the latter 
can be made nearly so, by white cotton curtains, or Vene- 
tian bhnds. Should curtains be preferred, care should be 
taken completely to exclude the sunshine, as a narrow 
streak of light is more prejudicial than a broad beam. 
The teacher should always have an eye to this difficulty. 
If the sunshine be permanently excluded from the room, 
it is believed, that it will never be found necessary to 
raise the south windows for air, at all ; but, should this 
not be the case,some plan of fixing the curtains may easily be 
adopted, that will prevent their being blown aside, and to 
keep the glare from the scholars' desks. Pegs should be 
fixed to the two sides and to the stove-end of the room, 
for hanging the hats and cloaks. These should be num- 
bered, and every scholar should know his number, which 
should be fixed at the opening of the school. 

As a blank wall at the end of the building w^ould be 
rather unsightly, it will be proper to have false windows 
outside, unless the district be sufficiently liberal to allow 
a Doric portico, which would render them unnecessary. 
At all events, there should be a small cupola, and a bell, 
which should be rung by a monitor, appointed weekly, by 
7* 



78 THE teacher's manual. 

the teacher. There should be a mat inside, and a scraper 
outside, of the inner door, that is, the door from the wood- 
house. Should the number of pupils be fifty or more, 
an assistant teacher would be found useful ; and a recita- 
tion room might be fitted up in the corner of the wood- 
house next the schoolroom. Should the number amount 
to eighty, or more, two assistants would be found more 
profitable than dividing the district ; and, as two recitation 
rooms would be required, they might easily be fitted up 
in the upper part of the woodhouse. 

If the highway should pass the school in a northerly 
direction, the gable or portico would form the front of the 
schoolhouse. If it ran westwardly, the north or south 
side of the building would be the front. But the road 
might pass in neither direction, but between the two. 
In this case, the advantages of the most favorable mode 
of lighting the schoolroom, and the most pleasant expo- 
sure, both for Summer and Winter, must be sacrificed to 
appearance, or the building put far enough back in the 
lot, to obviate the awkward appearance it wOuld present, 
standing neither perpendicular nor parallel to the road. 
In such a case, the advantages and disadvantages should 
be maturely considered, and care taken not to sacrifice 
too much to mere appearance. 

School-terms and School-hours, 

Enough has been said to show the importance of a per- 
manent teacher for primary schools. But a month's va- 
cation in the Spring, and another in the Autumn, would 
probably have no injurious effect on the scholar, and 
would be acceptable to the teacher, as a relaxation from 
her toil. The school should not be kept longer than six 
hours a day, divided into two equal portions, with an hour 
or two's intermission, between. The practice, getting 
into use, in some of the cities, of throwing the two peri- 
ods into one, cannot be too severely reprobated. Six 
hours a day, then, would be sufficient for the older schol- 
ars : longer periods would not be profitable. For chil- 
dren between seven and ten, four hours a day would be 
quite enough ; and children under seven should never be 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 79 

confined longer than an hour at a time making two hours 
a day. Longer periods than these would not only injure 
the health, but defeat the purpose, by producing dulness 
and inactivity of mind. Perhaps the best arrangement 
would be the following : 

Forenoon. 

Children, over ten, commence at . . 9, A. M, 

'* from seven to ten, .... 10, " " 

" under seven, II5 " " 

Dismissed, together, at . . . . . 12, M. 

Afternoon. 

Commence, together, at 1, P. M. 

Children, under seven, dismissed at . 2, '' " 

" from seven to ten, . . . 3, " " 

" over ten, 4, " '' 



Where the little ones are too far from home to go alone, 
they would have a woodhouse and a fine yard for exer- 
cise, till their brothers and sisters could accompany them. 
In Winter, they should be freely admitted to the stove, 
on condition of perfect order and silence. 

Discipline. 

Perhaps there is no subject on which teachers differ 
so essentially as on that of discipline. Some are severe 
in their exactions, and rely, almost entirely, on brute 
force, for the maintenance of order, to the manifest inju- 
ry of the moral and intellectual faculties of the child ; for 
punishment, it is to be feared, though it may succeed in 
producing order, has but too frequently the effect of ex- 
citing and inflaming the bad passions of its subject. Oth- 
ers, on the plea that they cannot be always scolding and 
whipping, are lax in their discipline, forgetful, or rather, 
perhaps, ignorant, that their plan actually requires more 
of both, than any other course. Are not both of these 
systems, however modified, radically wrong ? Is it not 
possible to discover one, founded on the better principles 
of human nature, less tyrannical than the former, and 



80 

less destructive of order than the latter ? So valuable 
an object is certainly worth trying for, even at the risk 
of failure. Let us make the attempt. 

One of the most characteristic distinctions, between man 
and the inferior animals, is the faculty of perceiving the 
difference between right and wrongs and the instinctive 
feeling of approbation of the one, and disapprobation of 
the other. This is, indeed, the essential moral power, to 
which all others are subordinate and subsidiary, and with- 
out which, they would be perfectly inefficient. It is the 
sense of duty ; in other words, it is conscience. This facul- 
ty is one of the first which is developed in the child ; and 
it is, commonly, far more pure than in the adult. In the 
latter, it is too frequently obscured by neglect, perverted 
by the influence of the passions, and misled by our inter- 
ests, and by the prejudices arising out of our numerous 
associations. Thus, to use the language of Scripture, 
it is " seared with a hot iron;" useless, or worse than 
useless ; failing to perform its appropriate office of promp- 
ter or reprover ; silent, when it should speak with a voice 
of thunder ; or speaking so feebly and equivocally, as 
only to mock and deceive. But, in a young child, this 
faculty is fresh from the hands of its Maker, and has not 
yet been exposed to any of those influences which tend to 
lead it astray. Hence, if our question is only clearly 
understood, we shall seldom, if ever, fail to receive, in 
reply, a correct discrimination between virtue and vice, 
from early childhood.* Would it not appear, then, that 
this is the principle on which disciphne should be based ? 
Surely, there can be no difficulty in showing a child, that 
it is for his advantage that a school should be orderly and 
quiet, and that it is ivrong^ either that he should waste the 
time, or obstruct the progress of others, or that his time 

* President Humphrey, in the Essay ah"eady quoted, says, *' I am 
strongly inclined to believe, that infants have a kind of moral instinct, 
which stands in the place of reason, and which is nothing less than the 
' law of the Lord,' ' written upon their hearts.' In other words, that 
there is an innate feeling of moral distinctions, which invites congenial 
culture, almost from the birth, and which is very early blunted by 
adverse influences, both internal and external. If so, here is an addi- 
tional motive for the early commencement of moral education." 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 81 

should be wasted, or his progress obstructed, by his fel- 
lows. All that is necessary is, that the simple question 
should be stated to him, to insure a correct reply. 

But there is a still more important advantage than the 
mere regulation of the school, arising from placing disci- 
pline on this foundation. It leads to the continued exer- 
cise and improvement of this most important principle of 
our moral nature. It gradually, without show or effort, 
leads us into the habit of referring every thing to con- 
science, — a habit of asking ourselves continually, ' Is 
this right V and that, at a time of life when our principles 
are all un warped by those prejudices and passions, which 
obscure or pervert our vision at a later period. 

Suppose that a teacher, on commencing her school, 
were to address her pupils in some such way as the fol- 
lowing, modified, of course, by the peculiar circumstances 
of the case: 

" Please to give me your attention, for a few minutes. 
I wish to consult* you all, how it will be best to manage 
this school. Do you know why your parents built this 
house, and why they go to the expense of having a school 
kept here ? I can tell you. It was to make you, chil- 
dren, mse, and good^ and happy. But you all know, 
that you could not learn much, if the school was noisy, 
and disorderly. How could I hear the classes rightly, 
if you were talking, or moving about the school ? — 
[Pause.] — Do you think it would be right, for [John] 
to talk, and prevent [William] from getting along with 
his studies ? Do you think it would be right, for me to 
allow any one to run about, or talk, so as to disturb the 
others ? All of you, who think it would be right,for me 
to allow this, will please to stand up in your places. 
What ! do none of you think it would be right, for me 
to allow it ? Well, then, I wish all of you, who think it 
would be wrong in me to allow it, to stand up. — You all 
think it would be wrong, then. Now, do any of you wish 

* Although it would be well, in most instances, to consult the school, 
the children should distinctly understand, that the teacher has authority 
to enforce lohat is right, independently of their decisions, which cannot 
be presumed, on all occasions, to be correct. 



82 THE teacher's manual. 

me to do wrong ? But you all know, that I have been 
placed here to teach you, and to prevent any of you from 
injuring or hindering the others. I am sure, then, that 
none of you wish me to cheat* your parents, or injure 
you, by allowing the least disorderly conduct or noise in 
this school. And I assure you, that I cannot suffer it, 
because I know it would be wrong. 

" But I wish this to be a pleasant school, as well as a 
profitable school. I know that it would be painful for 
[little] children, like you, to sit perfectly still, and not 
speak a word for two or three hours at a time. And I 
will not ask you to do any thing so disagreeable. There- 
fore, every half-hour, [or quarter, if children are mostly 
small,] I shall touch this bell, so, [or clap my hands,] 
for you to step out into the aisles, and sing, and march 
round the room, [or converse.] And, as soon as I touch 
the bell again, so, I shall expect every one instantly to 
sit down in his place, and resume his studies. Now, let 
every one, that can sing, join me in a song, and all the 
rest pay attention, so as to learn. 

* We 'II all love one another, 
We '11 all love one another, 
We '11 all love one another. 

As children ought to do. 

* We '11 love our teachers, also, 
Our fathers and our mothers, 
Our sisters and our brothers. 

As children ought to do.' " 

This lecture on discipline will be long enough for the 
first day. For we must be careful, if we would have 
attentive auditors in children, not to talk to them too long 
at a time. The following day, the subject may be thus 
resumed : 

"We had some talk, yesterday, about the management 
of the school. Who can tell me what we thought would 
be right, and what we thought would be wrong ? All, who 
remember, may hold up the right hand. John, do you 

* Children should never be taught, either by example or precept, to 
call bad actions by soft names. Let cheating, lying, and stealing, re- 
ceive their own proper appellatives. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 83 

tell US what would be right. — Mary, do you tell us what 
we said would be wrong. You will please to recollect, 
then, that we all agree, that it is icrong to look, or speak, 
or touch any one, who is at his studies. If there is any 
thing we wish to say or do, we should wait till the bell 
rings. I know that waiting will be a little hard for you 
at first. But you will soon get accustomed to it ; and 
then it will be quite easy. It is Hkely some of you may 
forget, and break the rule, by whispering, or touching one 
another. Now this would be wrong ; but it would be 
much worse for you to deny it, or to try to hide it. For 
this would be either telling a he, or acting a he, a thing 
that no good child will ever do. No liar can ever be 
respected or loved. Now, whenever I think the rule is 
broken, I will tap on the blackboard, thijs. And then 
I expect that the scholar who has broken the rule will 
stand up, and say, that it was he that did it. And, if he 
is sorry for his fault, I shall ask the other scholars to for- 
give him. I say, the other scholars ; for it is not me that 
he will have wronged, but the whole school, by making 
them lose their valuable time. I do n't wish you to tell 
of one another. We should not be too ready to see or 
talk of one another's faults. We shall all have enough 
to do, to find out and correct our own. 

" There is one thing more, I wish to say to you, to- 
day. There has been a good deal of pains taken, to fix 
up this room for study, and I think it would be best that 
we should use it for no other purpose. Whenever we 
are in this room, then, let us recollect, that we are here 
to learn to be good, and to be useful. We have a fine 
woodhouse and lot for play. So there is no occasion to 
use the schoolroom for playing. Let us have no wrest- 
ling, then, no noise, nor confusion, at any time, in this 
room. Whether I am here or not, let all be peace and 
order. As soon as you come in, go and hang up your 
hat and coat on your own peg, and take your seat. Un- 
less you are very cold, it is best not to go to the stove. 
But, if you do go there, be quiet and poHte ; take your 
regular turn to warm yourself; and, as soon as you are 
warm, go to your seat, and make room for others. Will 



84 THE teacher's manual. 

it not be much more pleasant to have quiet and orderly 
behavior here, than to have this room a scene of racket, 
and disorder, and noise ? When you feel inclined to 
have a little fun or play, you can easily go into the wood- 
house, or take a run out of doors. But here, all should 
be calmness, peace, and order. 

" But it may happen, that one or more of you may be 
heedless, when I am not here, and break this good rule. 
I should be very sorry, were that the case. But, should 
it happen, I hope that some of you, who are more atten- 
tive, will mildly tell him how wrong it is, and how sorry 
I shall be to hear it. And if he then stop, perhaps it 
will be best to say nothing more about it, in hopes such a 
thing may never happen again. But it will not do to let 
the Httle culprit go on, to spoil all your harmony, and 
injure your tempers. If he will not stop, those who are 
good must consult, as to who will be the most proper to 
tell me. If it be a boy who acts badly, perhaps it will 
be best for the oldest girl to let me know ; if a girl, the 
oldest boy." 

In these two little talks, the whole subject of discipline 
in the school has been discussed. But a teacher should 
exercise a healthful influence out of school, as well as in 
it. She should frequently advise them as to their amuse- 
ments, pointing out the bad tendency of those that lead to 
gambling, or that are connected, directly or remotely, with 
cruelty to animals. She should also, sometimes, visit 
them at play, and even occasionally join with them. 

But we have now to inquire, by what means our one 
simple rule of perfect order and regularity is to be carried 
into effect. Fortunately, these are exceedingly simple. 
The first approaches to disorderly conduct must be uni- 
formly noticed in a mild, but determined tone. Defec- 
tive discipline arises, chiefly, from a want of firmness and 
steadiness in the teacher, and too great laxity at the com- 
mencement of the school. In most cases, the mere notice 
of the beginning of evil will suffice to put a stop to it. 
But, should it not prove so, all business should immedi- 
ately he laid aside, until the restoration of perfect discipline. 
The teacher should, at once, inform the little culprit, 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 8§ 

mildly but firmly, that the operations of the school are 
totally suspended, till order is restored. This apparent 
waste of time will prove the truest economy. Every 
minute so spent will save hours, before the expiration of 
the term. After a short, silent pause, the offender may 
be asked, " If it be right, that he should thus disturb the 
school ?" and '' If he be sorry for his conduct ?" Should 
the answers be favorable, the teacher may say, '' As he 
repents, I suppose we must forgive him. Shall we do 
so ?" When forgiven, the teacher may say, " I trust 
you will be very careful in future ; you see you have made 
[thirty] of us lose, each, [ten] minutes of valuable time, 
that ought to have been spent in study. That is a loss to 
us of [five] hours, altogether. But I presume you did not 
think of that, or you never -would have acted so." But, 
if no answer, or improper ones, be returned to these 
questions, the rest of the school may be directed to stand 
up, and give attention. They may then be asked, " Is 
this child acting correctly ?" — " Must we all submit to 
him, and have our good rule broken ?" — " Would this 
be right ?" If still obdurate, the next course might be, 
to appoint tv/o boys and two girls to step out with the 
little culprit, and reason with him, on the incorrectness 
of his course. If the obstinacy continue after this, two 
of the boys may be despatched for one of the committee. 
Meanwhile, perfect silence should be kept in the school, 
and all studies laid aside. To the committee, when he 
appears, say, " Here is a child who refuses to conform 
to the rulds of the school, and persists in disturbing us. 
It will be necessary, I fear, for you to punish him, or 
reheve us of his presence." Is there any child who 
could resist such a course as this ? If so, he is fit only 
for a house of refuge, and should not be allowed the priv- 
ilege of the school, till his parents brought about a change 
of conduct. But what would be the effect of such disci- 
pline upon the others ? Would they not distinctly see 
the folly of such behavior, and feel, that it could not pass 
with impunity ? Corporal punishment, and even violent 
scolding, has but too frequently the effect of inflaming the 
passions of the teacher, and exhibiting him in a very un- 



86 

amiable light, before those who ought to love and rever- 
ence him. It has also the tendency, with some, to ex- 
cite a dislike to study. Others, again, are of so sensitive 
a disposition, that, in the words of a quaint old author, 
" to such a lad, a frown is a whipping ; and a whipping, a 
death." In a third, it will awaken a spirit of bitterness, 
or of defiance. But all children are strongly affected 
by the opinions of their playmates. Many a little hero, 
who would triumph in a sound wdiipping, would quail un- 
der the distinctly-expressed disapprobation of his com- 
panions, ehcited as above.* 

* Just as I had written the above, one of our best teachers happening 
to call, I read it over to him, and asked his opinion, as to the efficacy 
of this method of governing a school. " The better to enable you to 
judge," replied he, " I will relate to you a circumstance, which hap- 
pened at the school in your district, when I taught there, a few years 
ago. As there is no play-ground attached to the school, the scholars, 
of course, as you know, amuse themselves during recess, in the road ; 
and sliding on a board down the long hill, above the school, is a favor- 
ite exercise, in Winter. One morning, a neighbor, who lived half-way 
lip the hill, called, to request me to try to prevail on the scholars to 
desist from this amusement, as they made the road so slippery, that the 
females of the family were afraid to step out of doors. I told him I 
would talk to them about it, but, as my authority was confined to the 
school, it was doubtful whether it would be of much use. According- 
ly, as soon as the children were assembled, I briefly stated the facts, 
and asked, if they were willing to desist. ' I pretend to no authority 
over your amusements,' said I ; ' I merely ask, if you think it right to 
continue this play, when you find it so inconvenient for our neighbors. 
Now, I wish all of you who think it right, to hold up your hands.' 
Not a single hand was raised. ' Now,' continued I, * let us try it the 
other way. All who think it wrong, will please to hold up their hands.' 
At these words, a general rustle was heard in the school, and, on look- 
ing around, I observed that every hand was raised. Immediately, one 
of the boys, with eyes sparkling with humor, asked, if it was right for 
the girls to vote. ' Yes, James,' said I ; ' when we are considering 
about right and wrong, I wish all, girls as well as boys, to vote. And 
now, children, who, among you, are willing to give up what you all 
think is wrong ? I should be sorry to spoil your play ; but, if you will 
give up sliding in the road, I will go out with you, and we will try and 
find some other place for amusement. Now, all who are willing to 
stop sliding, hold up your hands.' Every hand was again raised. At 
intermission, I accordingly pointed out an adjoining field, v/here their 
favorite play might be pursued, though it was a far inferior situation to 
the one they had relinquished. It appeared, however, that three of the 
boys, brothers, after trying the new spot, repented of their promise, 
and, presuming on what I had said about want of authority over their 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 87 

There are two very opposite kinds of discipline, in 
schools ; the one founded on the passion of fear, the 
other, on that of love. Every other variety is either a 
modification, or a mixture of these. It is generally sup- 
posed, that the influence of fear is the most certain and 
easy. That it is the most certain is rather a doubtful 
point ; but, if by easiness is meant that it costs but httle 
thought to the teacher, there can be no doubt that it is 
sufficiently easy. It is both easier and quicker, to give a 
blow than a reason ; but one reason may secure obedi- 
ence, better than a hundred blows. It may be generally 
observed, that children, who act only from a fear of pun- 
ishment, acquire a slavish habit of feeling ; and, after 
having committed an offence, they will not hesitate to 
avail themselves of those unworthy expedients which low 
cunning can suggest, in order to escape detection, and its 
dreaded consequences. But there is one point of view, 
in which the subject is seldom, if ever, considered, which 
is undoubtedly the most important of all, namely, its moral 
effect on the community. The children of one genera- 
tion form the community of the next ; consequently, 
whaiever general moral effect is produced on youth, may 
be correctly said to influence the whole community. 

amusements, repaired to the old spot, and again commenced their fa- 
vorite play. But this the other boys would not allow. They all went 
to the road, and, as the recusants would listen to no remonstrance, the 
boys tumbled them into the snow, every time they came down the 
hill ; and, as even this failed to stop them, two of the majority, at last, 
jumped on their sled, and broke it to pieces. A struggle was the con- 
sequence, in which the culprits had the worse. In the afternoon, com- 
plaints were entered, on both sides, which, after a patient hearing, I 
proposed should be disposed of in the same way as the question in the 
morning. Accordingly, having recapitulated what had been said and 
agreed on at that time, I requested all who thought it wrong to break 
the agreement to give up the sliding place, to hold up their hands. 
Every hand in school was raised, except those of the three infringers, 
on whose countenances the powerful effect of public opinion was in- 
stantly manifest. 'This is all right,' I observed ; .' but we have anoth- 
er question to decide. It was undoubtedly wrong for these boys to 
break their agreement ; but was it right for any one to take the law 
into his own hands, and to use them ill, and break their sled. I wish 
you all calmly to think of this, and give your vote, whether it was wrong 
or not.' The decision now was una?iimous : which at once put an 
end, both to the quarrel, and the sliding on the road." 



88 

Now, the effect of fear is limited to the teacher's pres- 
ence, nay, even to his sight ; for his eye is closely watch- 
ed by the little mischief-makers. - The moment his at- 
tention is occupied in one place, the mischief breaks out 
in another. Like an army in an enemy's country, he 
holds only the actual ground he stands upon. Has not 
such a course as this the effect of making us all more or 
less eye-servants 9 Must not its influence be very per- 
nicious on the practice of virtue, the performance of our 
daily duties to God, as well as to man ? For it cannot 
be denied, that there are few, very few, indeed, who 
have an abiding sense of the presence of God. Compare 
such an influence as this, with that of love ! In the one 
case, the heart asks. Who sees us 9 in the other. Is this 
right 9* Is it not worth while, then, to give this system 
a fair trial ? But let it be, indeed, a/afr trial. No half- 
way measures must be pursued. We must begin, by de- 
manding, at once, perfect order. There must be no 
communication, under any pretence, between the pupils, 
during the periods allotted to study. The slightest ap- 
proaches to disorder must be instantly noticed, and 
stopped. And we must not demand impossibihties. 
The periods of study must be short ; in no case, exceed- 
ing half an hour ; with very young children, a quarter ; 

* Since writing the above, I have read a speech of Mr. Preston, 
United States Senator from South Carolina, at a political meeting in 
Philadelphia, in which he lavishes the most unbounded praise on Mr. 
Clay, for a sentiment, which, if education were on a proper footing, 
would be too common to attract notice. 

" I have heard him utter," said Mr. Preston, *' in his closet, senti- 
ments, which, had they fallen from the lips of one of the ancients of 
Greece or Rome, would have been repeated with admiration to the 
present day. On one occasion," continued Mr. P. "he did me the 
honor to send for and consult with me. After stating what he propo- 
sed, I suggested, whether there would be no danger in it, whether such 
a course would not injure his own prospects, as well as those of the 
Whig party, in general. His reply was, ' I did not send for you to ask 
what might be the effect of the proposed movements on my prospects^ 
but whether it was right ; I had rather be right, than be President.^ 
Such sentiments as these indicate the loftiness of the man, and the 
high purposes of his soul ; and they should call forth the admiration 
and confidence of the Nation. They point to him as the most worthy 
to wield her destinies." 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 89 

with intermissions of a few minutes, for change of posture 
and conversation. The children must have employment ; 
they cannot, if idle, be kept out of mischief. The room 
must be comfortable, as to heat and fresh air ; and the 
seats and desks must be easy and convenient. And the 
teacher must indulge in no harshness, but show that he 
loves his pupils ; and this is a matter in which children 
are seldom deceived. Unless all these things are atten- 
ded to, it will not be a /air trial ; the failure will be cer- 
tain. 

In accordance with this plan, rewards of all kinds, and 
even emulation and praise, should be eschewed. To the 
latter, one exception may be made. A slight degree of 
praise may be useful, in stimulating the slow and heavy- 
scholar. In all other cases, the complacency and de- 
lights of well-doing are amply sufficient. 

It would add much to the probabihty of success, if the 
plan was previously submitted to the committee, and their 
sanction obtained. When this has been done, it should 
be mentioned to the pupils, at the opening of the school. 

But it is probable that some teachers may be incredu- 
lous, as to the good effects of this species of discipline ; 
and that others may be devoid of the calmness, steadi- 
ness, and firmness, requisite to carry it into effect. To 
all such, a few general observations, on the nature and ef- 
fects of the system of punishments, may be useful. It 
seems to have been reserved for modern times, to eluci- 
date, clearly, the true nature and design of punishment, 
which, by enlightened legislators, is no longer regarded in 
the light of an expiatory and vindictive process ; but 
rather, as intended to serve, at once, the purpose of cor- 
recting and ameliorating the offender, and of deterring 
others from the commission of similar crimes. This 
view of the subject is expressly sanctioned by the dec- 
larations of Holy Writ ; and might, indeed, have been 
ascertained, long ago, by a careful and attentive study of 
those sacred records, in which our Divine Legislator has 
been pleased to reveal the motives which have influenced 
the dispensations, both of his providence and grace. He 
is there described as chastening us, not for his pleasure, 
8* 



90 

but for our profit. In imitation, then, of this gracious 
procedure of our Heavenly Father, we should keep 
steadily in view the ultimate good of the faulty individual, 
and let him see, that such is our chief design in inflicting 
upon him temporary suffering and privation. 

1. First, then, the system of discipline, whatever may 
be its nature, should be uniform, systematic, and im- 
partial. The teacher should have the plan thoroughly 
digested in his own mind, and act steadily upon it, not 
being severe one day, and lax the next ; and not passing 
over, in one child, what he punishes, in another, without 
very sufficient reasons, which should be explained to the 
school. Such a course would be the worst of tyranny, 
and would destroy all the influence of the teacher over 
the school, and render him the object of hatred, instead 
of love. 

2. The teacher should never attempt to govern by a 
long, formal set of rules. It is impossible to make rules 
which will suit all cases ; and, even if it were possible, a 
child could never remember them. He ought, then, ra- 
ther to endeavor to inspire right feelings, and they will 
govern his actions. If we love what is good, we shall 
think and do what is good. 

3. When punishments are resorted to, care should be 
taken that they be not too severe. Unnecessary or ex- 
cessive severity should be avoided ; because it will tend 
either to keep up a perpetual irritation, or give rise to a 
hardened, callous feeling ; or, what is, perhaps, still 
worse, induce permanent and irretrievable depression. It 
is a correct and well-founded observation of the illustrious 
Locke, that " those children, who are the most chastised, 
rarely prove the best men ; and that punishment, if it be 
not productive of good, will certainly be the cause of 
much injury." In determining on the kind of punish- 
ment, reference should always be had to the character of 
the pupil, so as neither to awaken bitterness or defiance, 
nor to break the spirit of a mild and susceptible child. 

4. Punishments should seldom, if ever, be inflicted 
before the school. The effect upon them will be much 
increased by their uncertainty as to its nature and de- 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 91 

gree. And besides ; if the culprit be taken aside, and 
calmly remonstrated with, punishment may frequently be 
rendered unnecessary ; or, if it must be inflicted, he will 
sooner yield in private, than when the eyes of his com- 
rades are upon him. In this situation, pride generally 
induces obstinacy, which often leads to the very worst 
effects. 

5. The punishment should be administered with calm- 
ness, and an affection, which should be real, and not a 
mere show. For thus it will have a much more powerful 
effect. Anger, or the indulgence of a vindictive feeling, 
should be sedulously guarded against. Angry punish- 
ments will never do good ; for anger shows, even to a 
child, that the teacher is incapable of governing himself. 
Besides, we cannot, when angry, see things in their true 
colors ; we cannot weigh them with care ; and, if we are 
hasty with our punishments, they will sometimes fall on 
the innocent. This would, indeed, be a most serious 
misfortune. Should it ever happen, no time should be 
lost in making an ample apology to the sufferer, before 
the whole school. 

6. We should be particularly careful, never to punish 
for real incapacity or innocent weakness. Surely, this 
must appear sufficiently reasonable to all ; and yet, it is to 
be feared, that it is a rule too frequently broken. The 
slow and the dull should rather be encouraged, than dis- 
heartened by reproach and punishment. A double share 
of patience, mildness, and attention, should be exercised 
towards them. 

7. In estimating the measure of punishment, for any 
offence, we should regard rather the motive than the con- 
sequences of the action ; the intention with which it was 
performed, rather than the effects that may result from it. 
Hence, children should not be punished for mere acci- 
dents, but mildly cautioned against similar carelessness, 
in future ; or, if they are subject to heedlessness, it may 
be necessary to subject them to some inconvenience, or 
privation, as the natural consequences of their want of care. 

8. There is a certain class of punishments practised 
by some teachers, which ought to be banished from every 



92 THE teacher's manual. 

school. Pinching the ears, pulling the hair, beating about 
the head, with a book, a cane, or whatever happens to 
be in the hand ; these, if once indulged, grow into habits 
of equal severity and caprice. They are, in their nature, 
vulgar and offensive ; and, being received as indignities, 
never fail to excite the resentnient of the sufferers. 

9. But, whatever may be the punishment, it should be 
continued, till it answers its end. If a child gains the vic- 
tory by his obstinacy, the efficiency of the school is to- 
tally ruined. This consideration makes it a matter of the 
very first importance, that the nature and degree of each 
punishment should be well weighed, beforehand, so that 
we may feel sure it will be effectual. 

10. Finally, we should neither exact nor even allow 
o( promises of future amendment. Nothing is so readily 
given, and nothing is so fragile, as a child's promise. 
We are directed by Christ, to ask, that God would 
not lead us into temptation. Let us practise towards 
children, what we ask from our Maker. Let us never 
tempt them into useless promises, which we know will be 
broken, and thus harden their tender minds in iniquity. 
The question should be, Are you good ? not, Will you 
be good ? But this subject is too important, for full dis- 
cussion in this place. It will again be noticed, under the 
head of Moral Education. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 

Recapitulation. 

In taking a retrospective view of our inquiries, on the 
subject of physical education, we appear to have arrived 
at the following conclusions : 

I. That, in the formation of school districts, it should 
always be borne in mind, that a ^ood^ permanent school, 
within a moderate walk for children of six or seven years 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 93 

of age, is much preferable to a poor school, for a few 
months in the year, close at hand. 

II. That the distribution of the pubhc funds, per cap' 
itttj is not only unjust, as regards the scholars, but highly 
injurious to the public welfare. 

ILL. That, as large schools possess many advantages 
over small ones, the number of teachers, and not of 
schools, should be increased, as population becomes 
more dense. 

IV. That in every town, there should be, at least, 
tvvo grades of schools, in which the whole population 
should receive a thorough education. 

V. That the plan of graduating the schools, if proper- 
ly reduced to practice, would rapidly produce a body of 
capable and experienced female teachers, — an object of 
the very first importance to the community. 

VI. That this plan is also, in every respect, more 
efficient, economical, and equal. 

VIL That the plan should not be carried into exe- 
cution, in any tovvn, until the people are prepared to re- 
ceive it ; and, then, it should be general, not partial. 

VIII. That school lots should be on pleasant and 
healthful situations, and never less than half an acre in 
extent. 

IX. That they should be neatly fenced, and provided 
with accommodations for amusement and exercise. 

X. That schoolhouses should be neat and substantial 
structures, and placed with reference to the most equable 
heat and light, rather than merely to correspond with the 
highway. 

XI. That the woodshed should be at least as large 
as the schoolhouse, so as to afford room for exercise and 
play for the children, in bad weather. 

XII. That some apparatus should be affixed to the 
stove, so that the schoolroom may have a constant supply 
of fresh warm air. 

XIII. That care should be taken, that such air be not 
burnt, i. e. its oxygen abstracted by violent heat, during 
the process of warming it. 

XIV. That the schoolroom should afford ample space 



04 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

for the evolutions of the school, and that the seats and 
desks should be commodious and comfortable for the 
children of all the different ages, likely to occupy it. 

XV. That the discipline should be uniform and per- 
fect, the product of love and reason, rather than of fear ; 
and that it should be supported by constant appeals to the 
Conscience. 

XVI. That the school-discipline founded on love has 
a beneficial, and that founded on fear, an injurious, effect 
on the whole community. 

XVII. That the disciphne of the school should re- 
ceive the sanction of the prudential committee. 

XVIII. That the legitimate design of punishment is 
not vengeance, but the melioration of the offender, and 
the example to the community. 

XIX. That the discipline of schools should be uniform, 
systematic, and impartial. 

XX. That punishments should be mild, but always 
effectual, administered with calmness, and with a due re- 
gard to the motives of the offender. 

^ XXI. That promises of future amendment should 
neither be exacted nor received. 



CHAPTER V. 

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 

Introductory. 

" What is a man. 

If his chief good , and market of his time 
Be but to sleep and feed ? A beast, no more." — 

Shakspeare. 

Among the various popular errors, which tend to re- 
tard the improvement of society, there is none, perhaps, 
more pernicious, than the opinion, that the main object 
of school education should be the acquisition of know- 
ledge. The cause of this mistake is the notion, univer- 
sally prevalent, that school learning, instead of being 
merely one of the means of acquiring an education, is 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 95 

education itself. This is an error, the removal of which 
imperatively calls for the united efforts of intelligent phi- 
lanthropists ; for, until this is effected, our schools can 
never even approach to that degree of improvement, 
which they ought to attain. The chief, may we not say 
the sole, concern of man on earth is Education ; and 
the great business of schools and colleges is, to prepare 
him to enter on this course of education with ease and 
effect. To do this properly, three things are requisite. 

1. He must be taught to read. Reading is the great 
key to knowledge. He, who has properly acquired it, 
has all the stores of learning, which have been accumu- 
lating for nearly six thousand years, completely at his 
command. There is no art or science, of which he may 
not make himself master. Whenever he pleases, he can 
converse with Moses, Socrates, Seneca, Cicero, or 
Jesus. He can summon before him the founders of na- 
tions, all the warriors and mighty monarchs of antiquity, 
and question them as to their actions and motives. The 
philosophers and cultivators of science, of all ages and 
of all climes, are constantly in waiting, ready, at his call, 
to throw all their stores at his feet. He may acquaint 
himself with all the productions of Nature and art to be 
found on the globe. He can make himself familiar with 
the most trifling, as well as the most valuable, stone, or 
flower, or fruit, from the furthest region of the earth, at 
his own fireside. Nor is his knowledge confined even to 
the globe he inhabits. Without leaving his own house, 
he can examine, through Herschel's great telescope, the 
planetary worlds, rolling around him, and he can call on 
Lalande and Laplace to explain all the wonders of the 
heavenly bodies, and all the seeming intricacies of their 
motions. 

Reading makes a man a denizen of all nations, a con- 
temporary of all ages. Carlyle, in his ' Sartor Resar- 
tus,' says, " Fortunatus had a wishingrhat, which, when 
he put on, and wished himself any where, behold he was 
there. By this means had Fortunatus triumphed over 
space, annihilated space ; for him, there was no Where, 
but all was Here. Were a hatter to establish himself in 



96 

the Wahngasse of Weissnichtwo,* and make felts of this 
kind for all mankind, what a world we should have of it ! 
Still stranger, should, on the opposite side of the street, 
another hatter establish himself; and, as his fellow- crafts- 
man made space-annihilating hats, make time-annihila- 
ting ! Of both would I purchase, were it with my last 
groschen ; but chiefly of this latter. To clap on your 
felt, and, simply by wishing that you were any ivhere, 
straightway to be there ! Next, to clap on your other 
felt, and, simply by wishing that you were any when^ 
straightway to be then ! This were, indeed, the grand- 
er ; shooting, at will, from the fire-creation of the world 
to its fire-consummation ; here, historically present in the 
first century, conversing, face to face, whh Paul and Sen- 
eca ; there, prophetically in the thirty-first, conversing 
also, face to face, with other Pauls and Senecas, who, as 
yet, stand hidden in the depth of that late time !" 

Does not reading give us the possession of two felts, 
in a considerable degree resembling those for which our 
poetic historian was willing to part with his last groschen ? 
When we clap on both these hats, may we not, in an in- 
stant, transport ourselves into Athens, in the first century, 
to hear Paul deliver his celebrated speech before the 
Areopagitae ? Then, by a wish, may not the time-anni- 
hilating hat place us some three centuries backwards, to 
listen, in the same city, to the philippics of Demosthe- 
nes ? and, two centuries further, to hear Herodotus re- 
cite his history at the Olympic games ? and anon, by the 
aid of both our felts, twenty centuries later, on the deck 
of the Santa Maria, on that important morning, whose 
dawn first disclosed to civilized man our Western world ? 
We hear the solemn Te Deum sung by the crews of the 
little barks on that joyful occasion, and join in their 

* Wahngasse of Weissnichtwo, — literally, Whimsey-street of 
Know-not-where. Carlyle appears to have fixed his amiable profes- 
sor, Teufelsdrockh, {literally, Devil's drug ; Scottice, Devil's dung ; 
assafcetida,) in the same place where Scott located the Monastery 
over which the mild, peace-loving Abbot, Ambrosius, presided, viz., 
in Kennaquair, Anglice, Know-not-where. Wonder if the professor 
never selected the ruins of its splendid abbey, as the site of his pro- 
found ruminations. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 9f 

tears and mutual gratulations. When, ho ! presto ! in 
the tvvinklhig of an eye, we find ourselves seated amongst 
our countrymen, in a splendid steam-boat, gliding, as by 
magic, on a mighty river, amongst towering mountains, 
or whirled along by fire upon the land, in the rapid car. 
And, as soon as the slightest degree of fatigue is felt, 
hey ! in an instant, we are at our own fireside, our whole 
family seated around us. Nay, have not our hats another 
wonderful property, which even that of Fortunatus did 
not possess .'' Are they not so expansible and elastic, as 
conveniently to accommodate any number required, be- 
neath their ample shade } Cannot we carry our family 
and friends along with us, in our miraculous excursions 
any where and any when .'' 

2. But, in order that all these advantages may be de- 
rived from reading, the faculty of attention must be fully 
developed. By constant exercise of this power, the 
scholar must be enabled, at any time, to bend his whole 
mind to the subject with which he is engaged, to the ex- 
clusion of all others. This is an indispensable requisite. 
It is from the want of this, that our schools have hitherto 
been, in a great measure, useless to the mass of the com- 
munity. When completely acquired, i. e., when a child 
can merely read with attention, all the impediments to 
self-education are completely removed. He may make 
of himself what he pleases. It is attention which con- 
stitutes the great difference between the wise man and 
the fool ; it hes, indeed, at the foundation of all intellec- 
tual culture. Fortunately, this power, as will presently 
be shown, is easily acquired in early life. But the 
longer its cultivation is delayed, the more difficult its at- 
tainment, until, at length, it becomes almost impossible 
to acquire it to any degree of perfection. 

3. The third indispensable requisite of school educa- 
tion, is the habit of observation. The difference in 
mankind, as to this important habit, is immense. Vast 
numbers of persons pass through life, without seeing or 
hearing any thing but what relates to the most gross and 
common concerns. As to every thing else, they seem 
to be in a state of dreamy unconsciousness. In the lan- 

9 



98 

guage of Scripture, " Seeing, they see not ; and hearing, 
they hear not ; neither do they understand." Others, 
again, seem to Hve with all their senses wide awake. 
The one has nothing in view but the acquisition of prop- 
erty, or the indulgence of the grosser propensities of his 
nature. The other, without necessarily neglecting any 
of his more common duties, is not wholly absorbed in 
them. Nature appears to him in all her beauty, and 
continually converses with him in strains of the most 
exquisite poetry. What appears mere nakedness and 
ruggedness, to the one, is, to the other, a scene of sub- 
limity and beauty. Hence, while the one sees the mere 
body, the husk, as it were, of Nature, the other looks 
inward, and converses with her soul ; 

" Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks , 
Sermons in stones, and good in every thing." — 

The faculty of observation, then, must be developed at 
school, in order to prepare the scholar fully to enjoy all 
the advantages oiFered in the great School of Nature. 

These, then, are the three great requisites of intellec- 
tual education, in our common schools. But these are, 
by no means, all. The whole of the intellectual facul- 
ties should receive such a training, as will bestow on the 
mind a proper degree of vigor, symmetry, and proportion. 

A great deal of knowledge will, it is true, be acquired 
in every school that is properly conducted. But still, 
this should be considered as incidental, not as the inain 
object of the school. The teacher should not direct 
much of his attention to this point. The grand objects 
he should have continually in view, towards which he 
should unceasingly press forward, should be, to teach 
reading without bad habits, and to develope the faculties 
of observation, attention, reflection, reason, judgment, 
memory, imagination, and taste. 

Nor will this be so difficuh a task for the teacher, as 
may, at first sight, appear. The proper mode of teach- 
ing reading will be exhibited, in all its details, in a subse- 
quent chapter ; a mode which will not only avoid the 
formation of bad habits, but which will, if fully carried 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 99 

out, tend to the developement of all the valuable facul- 
ties of the human mind. The same may be said of com- 
position, perhaps, in a still greater degree. The mathe- 
matics, including arithmetic, both mental and written, 
when taught on true principles, and divested of all me- 
chanical rules and unnecessary tables, will cooperate to 
the same valuable end. And, finally, the study of the 
learned languages will tend to fill up all the little vacan- 
cies or omissions of the former studies. Thus most, or 
all, of the studies in both grades of schools, if properly 
pursued, will regularly and constantly tend to produce 
the desired effect. 

Much difference of opinion exists on the comparative 
value of the mathematics and classical studies, as means 
for disciplining the mind. The truth seems to be, that 
neither are complete means for that purpose. The 
mathematics, independent of their value as indispensable 
steps towards the attainment of the exact sciences, are 
invaluable aids for developing the faculties of attention, 
reflection, and reason. They deal, however, exclu- 
sively with certainties. And, as the most important 
concerns of our hfe, in which our judgment is required, 
are probabilities only, it follows, that we must look else- 
where for means of developing some of our most valua- 
ble faculties. Here, the classics, or study of the dead 
languages, opportunely steps in to our assistance, and 
aids in bringing out our judgment, memory, imagination, 
and taste. If, then, we would have pupils completely 
fitted to enter the great College of Nature, neither of 
these important branches must be neglected. And, if 
both are properly and thoroughly taught, they will be 
fully prepared to enter on that grand course of study^ 
which, if it is ever destined to close, will close but with life. ' 



100 THE teacher's MANUAL. 



CHAPTER VI. 

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 

Teachers^ SeminaHes. 

The great object of these seminaries should be, to 
furnish instruction, such as is not only necessary to pre- 
pare teachers for the important and complicated duties 
of their profession, but such, also, as is not elsewhere to 
be procured. For, in truth, there would be but small 
advantages derived from the estabhshment of an institu- 
tion of this sort, the whole, or even the greater part, of 
whose attention should be devoted to teaching the math- 
ematics, the sciences, and the dead and living languages. 
This species of knowledge can be readily obtained in 
most of our established academies and colleges. But 
what is really wanted is, an institution where teachers 
shall learn to read properly, a point in which most of 
them are sadly deficient ; where they shall acquire the 
Art of Teaching ; the best and easiest manner of un- 
folding and cultivating the various faculties of the human 
mind ; of directing the inquirer in his search after truth ; 
and of teaching him the arts of observation, classifica- 
tion, and investigation. In such a school, the pupils 
should be alternately teachers and scholars ; that is to 
say, they should be initiated into the practice^ as well as 
into the theory^ of the art of teaching. They should be 
required, by turns, to lecture to each other, on all the 
subjects brought under the notice of the school ; and to 
visit the neighboring district schools, for the purpose of 
trying their qualifications as teachers under the eye of 
their instructer ; or regular periods may be appointed for 
receiving classes from the neighboring schools, with that 
view. Each pupil should also be required to take turns 
in lecturing from the blackboard, of the great value of 
which but few of the teachers seem, as yet, to have an 
adequate idea, or else are ignorant of the mode of bring- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 101 

ing it into practical use. And, finally, the subject of 
morals and discipline should be fully discussed, and every 
member of the school daily questioned on these subjects, 
until they have become perfectly famihar. 

How should these seminaries be supported ? As the 
object is not the individual advantage of the teacher, but 
the general good, of course, the expense should be borne 
by the public. But, in fact, the necessary expense 
would be a mere trifle, should the system of central 
schools be carried extensively into operation. For, as 
it is chiefly, if not exclusively, the primary schools that 
require the aid of these teachers' seminaries, and as 
these schools would be supplied by permanent teachers, 
a new race of w^ell-educated youth would be ready to 
take their place, before the teachers who had been edu- 
cated at the seminary had left the stage. In fact, in a 
very few years after such institutions had been in opera- 
tion, every district school would present a model, from 
which those, who wished to devote themselves to teach- 
ing, might learn the true art, in a very short time. 
Teachers' seminaries, then, are only wanted tempora- 
rily, if other matters are properly arranged. 

With respect to their number, let us take Massachu- 
setts as an example. In this State, three would be 
abundantly sufficient. One might be located at Boston, 
another at Worcester, a third at Northampton. Or, if 
the Legislature is incredulous as to their effects, and 
not willing to establish three, a trial might be made by 
one at Boston, to be held at Worcester and Northampton 
the second and third years. 

The school ought to be free to all who should sub- 
scribe to its regulations, and provide themselves with 
suitable books, which need not exceed two or three. 
The total expense to the State might probably be about 
fifteen hundred or two thousand dollars per annum, for 
six years. If the situation of Principal to such an insti- 
tution were conferred on a person of suitable talents, 
and sufficient enthusiasm for the cause, the benefit to the 
State would be incalculable. A similar arrangement 

might be adopted by every other State, that took suffi- 
9« 



102 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

cient interest in the improverinent of universal education. 
If this cheap and practicable mode of diffusing informa- 
tion should be generally adopted, — and it only waits for 
some public-spirited legislature to take the lead, — the 
schools throughout the land would be revolutionized, in 
the course of a very few years. And our colleges must 
follow suit. For they could not exist, without advancing 
at least, pari passu^ with the schools. 

Qualification of Teachers. 

The indispensable literary quahfications of a teacher 
of the primary school are, reading, orthogYaphy, writing, 
arithmetic, the principles of composition, and geography. 
But it is very desirable, that she should possess a know- 
ledge of book-keeping and vocal music, in order that she 
may teach them ; of moral and intellectual philosophy, 
the philosophy of grammar, history, algebra, and geome- 
try ; as, though not intended to be studied in the primary 
school, they are necessary for her own intellectual im- 
provement, and to enable her to teach, with effect, the 
branches that are studied there. If, then, a young 
woman possess a thorough knowledge of the first six 
mentioned branches, she may consider herself qualified 
to commence a school. But, as these observations apply 
only to the present state of education ; as, in a few years 
hence, it is probable, that no one will even propose to 
assume the profession, without much higher qualifica- 
tions ; such primary teacher ought, without delay, to set 
about the acquisition of all the branches mentioned. 
Should she be really qualified by Nature for teaching, 
she will hardly find any difficulty in these studies, which 
she cannot conquer alone. At all events, if insuperable 
difficulties should occur, there are few situations where 
she will not be able to find willing assistance to overcome 
them. 

Where the central-school system has not gone into 
operation, the literary qualifications of the teacher should 
considerably exceed what has here been stated. 

The literary qualifications of a teacher of the central 
se4i0ol^ ought to be, 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 103 

1. The Mathematics : viz. their general principles: 
algebra, geometry, conic sections, and fluxions ; and 
their application : plane and spherical trigonometry, men- 
suration, navigation, surveying, and civil engineering. 

2. The Classics : or a knowledge of the dead lan- 
guages. 

3. The Modern Languages : French, Spanish, Ital- 
ian, and German. 

4. Grammar, Rhetoric, and Composition. 

5. Natural History : viz. the mineral kingdom, mine- 
ralogy, geology, and meteorology ; the vegetable king- 
dom, botany ; the animal kingdom, zoology, ornithology, 
entomology, ichthyology, and conchology. 

6. Chemistry and Natural Philosophy. 

7. History, Mental and Moral Philosophy, Political 
Economy, Physiology, and Comparative Anatomy. 

8. Drawing, and Vocal Music. 

Teachers with such extensive qualifications could 
not now be procured ; but none less qualified than the 
members of the senior classes of the colleges ought to 
be thought of. If the central-school system, however, 
should go extensively into operation, the colleges would 
he forced to enlarge their course of study, as the fresh- 
man class from the central school would be nearly equal 
to the present graduates ; and so, every year, we should 
have better teachers. Thus, the general adoption of this 
system would no less advance the education of profes- 
sional men, than that of the great body of the people. 
This is the true method of improving education. Begin 
at the foundation, and the whole superstructure ascends. 
Elevate the common school, and the colleges must rise. 

With respect to intellectual and moral qualifications, 
both grades of schools demand similar requisites. 

1. The teacher should understand the object of edu- 
cation. He should no longer contract its usefulness to 
the ignoble object of enabling men to conduct the mere 
business of life. He should have a strong and clear per- 
ception of the truth, that the object of school education 
is not even principally to acquire knowledge, but to form 
habits of mental industry, to train the mind to find pleas- 



104 

lire in intellectual effort, and to inspire a love of know- 
ledge for its own sake. 

2. The teacher should be a good reader, able to make 
the hearer feel and perceive all that the author intended. 
This, however, is so rare a talent, that, until teachers' 
seminaries have been some time in operation, it will be 
nearly in vain to look for it. 

3. He should be able to illustrate and simplify every 
thing he teaches, and, therefore, should have the power of 
communicating his ideas with clearness and precision. 
He should know how to make children think, by means 
of appropriate questions. He should, also, be apt at 
finding means of rousing sluggishness, and correcting 
waywardness ; of inciting the idle to diligence ; of 
strengthening good principles where they exist, implant- 
ing them where they are deficient, and, in all, forming 
habits of order, industry, patience, and obedience. 

4. He should possess decision and firmness ; patience 
and perseverance ; uniformity of temper, and complete 
self-command. 

5. He should be pleasant and affectionate, and well 
quahfied to sympathize with children. Empty profes- 
sions of interest and attachment will not succeed ; chil- 
dren, in this respect, cannot be deceived. There is 
nothing that so invariably begets its like, as love. If the 
teacher desires his pupils to love him, — and this is what 
every teacher should desire, — it is only necessary for 
him to love them. He should also show, that he takes 
an interest in their sports, and sometimes unbend, so far 
as to take a share in them. He should appear gratified 
at their simple efforts to please, by presenting a flower, 
an apple, a cake, or any other token of regard ; be wil- 
ling to comply with every request, and to grant every 
indulgence, not incompatible with duty, or their own 
good ; but firm in refusal, when compliance would be 
wrong. 

6. The moral character of the teacher should be un- 
impeachable, in every respect. He should be a pattern 
of neatness, and order ; and, to crown all, and which, in 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 105 

fact, embraces the whole matter, he should be a lover 
and steadfast follower of Truth. 

Duties of the Prudential Committee, as to choice of Teacher. 

When the primary school shall be conducted by per- 
manent teachers, the importance of a judicious selection 
will be much enhanced ; and it is to be hoped, that the 
affair of wages will then form but a minor consideration. 
The committee, to whom the choice is intrusted, should 
well consider the responsibility he assumes ; that it is 
not, as heretofore, a mere temporary arrangement, but 
one, on which may depend the weal or woe of the whole 
rising generation of the district. The inquiry into the 
moral character, and other quahfications of the candidate, 
can never be too close and strict ; for it now assumes a 
tenfold importance. When a good teacher has been se- 
cured, it would seem proper, that she should not be sub- 
ject to dismissal from the caprice of every new com- 
mittee. It is, at least, worthy of consideration, whether 
it should not require the vote of the district to bring the 
contract to a close. 

Conventions of Teachers. 

Having thus shown how teachers are to be instructed, by 
means of institutions for that purpose ; the quahfications 
they ought to possess, before they enter on their profes- 
sion ; and the duties of committees, in making a selection ; 
it will now be proper to inquire into the best means for 
teachers to adopt, in order to continue and extend the, 
course of improvement on which they have entered. It 
is one of the laws of man's nature, that he is to move al- 
ways, to stop never. His career must either be forward 
or backward. And more particularly is this the case at 
the commencement of any course, before his knowledge 
has become fixed by habit. From this principle arises 
the importance of teachers' establishing societies among 
themselves, for mutual advice, encouragement, and im- 
provement. 

It is highly probable that great differences will exist, 
in respect to the capacity and talents of the pupils in the 



106 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

Teachers' Seminary. Some will quickly understand and 
appropriate all that is brought before them. Every little 
hint will lead to careful examination and reflection, and 
frequently bring out much good, which was never in the 
contemplation of the teacher. Others, of a more slow 
and mechanical disposition, will originate nothing of them- 
selves, and, in many cases, will but partially catch the 
views of the teacher. Some will carry improvements 
into effect in their true spirit, and meet with complete 
success in carrying them into practice ; others will act 
on the dead letter, only, and will fail. It becomes, then, 
a matter of the first importance, that a free interchange 
of thought and sentiment should exist between them, that 
the weak may be encouraged by the strong, and that the 
timid may be strengthened by the success of the more 
bold. In this manner, also, any false hypotheses that 
may have been advanced by their teacher may at once 
be quashed, after its unfitness has been demonstra- 
ted by so extensive an experiment as could be carried 
on by such a society. 

As soon, then, as the schools are generally in opera- 
tion, a meeting of all the teachers in town should be 
called, through the medium of the pulpit, or in any other 
convenient mode. At this first meeting, the plan of op- 
erations might be determined on. These might be : 1. 
A recital of the experience of teachers, particularly as 
to improvements, or new modes recommended in the 
Teachers' Seminary, or in education periodicals. 2. 
Recitals of the modes of discipline practised in the sev- 
eral schools, and remarks on their advantages and disad- 
vantages. 3. Discussions on both these subjects. 4. 
Reading, from works on education, or periodicals. 5. 
Lectures. Such meetings could either be held weekly, 
once a fortnight, or once a month, according to circum- 
stances, at some central schoolhouse, or other convenient 
place. The officers of the society might be a president, 
vice-president, and secretary, which last should keep a 
regular journal of proceedings, to be copied into a bound 
book. At the last meeting, previous to each vacation, 
every member should be required to furnish returns of 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 107 

the state of his school for the past season ; specifying the 
number of children under seven years of age, between 
seven and ten, and above ten, discriminating the boys 
and girls of each class ; also, the average attendance, 
-and what measures, if any, had been adopted, to pro- 
duce regularity, and their success. The various studies 
attended to should also be specified ; the books used, 
with remarks on their comparative value ; the size and 
nature of school libraries, where they existed ; the meas- 
ures adopted to induce careful usage of books, and 
their success ; and remarks on the mode of discipline 
and system of tuition, noticing failures as well as suc- 
cessful experiments. An explanatory lecture on the ar- 
rangement and value of such returns, at a previous meet- 
ing, would be highly salutary. Or this might be prepared 
by some gentleman of intelligence and zeal, and circula- 
ted through the districts,through the means of some edu- 
cation periodical. The returns might be filed by the 
secretary, and embodied by him, at leisure, into one 
report ; or, if there were a central school, this last duty 
might be performed by the principal of that institution. 
In each county, there ought to be a convention of 
teachers, annually, or semi-annually ; those counties that 
are inconveniently large being divided into two districts. 
Such conventions might either be attended by all the 
teachers, or by a delegation from each town. Similar 
offices to those of the town conventions would probably 
be found convenient. If so, it might be made the duty 
of the secretary^ besides keeping the records, to receive 
and digest into one the reports from the town societies, 
which it should be the business of the principal of the 
central school, or of the deputations from the respective 
towns, to present to the convention. At these meetings, 
resolutions on the subject of education, and, especially, 
respecting proposed improvements, or such as have been 
already tried, might be proposed for discussion. As a 
large majority of the members, both of the town and 
county societies, would probably be females, the discus- 
sions should assume as much of a conversational style as 
possible, in order to prevent the ladies from withholding 



108 

their valuable experience and suggestions. In the towns 
where the county conventions are held, it is very desira- 
ble, that some of the influential inhabitants should assume 
the care of providing accommodations for the teachers 
during the sitting of these conventions. Their object 
being public good, and not the individual advantage of 
the members, it would be a great oversight to discourage 
attendance, by making them a source of expense. In 
the town where the writer resides, with a scattered popu- 
lation not exceeding tw^o thousand, accommodations were 
provided, a few years ago, for two hundred teachers, 
without charge, during a convention which lasted for four 
successive days. The same spirit would, no doubt, be 
shown by any town in New England, where individuals 
were found willing to step forward, and propose the 
arrangement. If the subject were properly presented 
to the Legislature, the State would undoubtedly make 
a small appropriation, to cover the expense of printed 
forms of returns, &c., and receive, in return, a copy for 
the use of the government. 

School Libraries. 

There is one difficulty attending the improved modes 
of education, which, in some places, has proved rather 
annoying. But this, like most of the evils of life, will 
be found, on a full and fair examination, to be rather 
imaginary than real ; or rather, if not actually a good in 
itself, capable, by proper management, of resulting in a 
good. The difficulty alluded to is the expense, arising 
from the great number of books required in all our im- 
proved schools. For not only is the course of educa- 
tion very much extended, but a much greater variety of 
reading books becomes absolutely necessary for the 
younger classes. Where the old, mechanical mode of 
teaching reading is practised, one, or at most, two, kinds 
of reading books are all that are requisite. For, in this 
mode of reading, if reading it may be called, which 
scarcely differs from the inane chatter of a parrot, a 
book may be conned over nineteen times, and, on the 
twentieth, be still as new as ever. But, when a book has 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 109 

only been read once, or, at most, twice, according to tlie 
improved method, the contents have become perfectly 
familiar to the whole class. And to make them recom- 
mence would obviously much impede their progress, 
directly as well as indirectly. Hence, every few weeks, 
there is a call for a new book ; a call which must be 
answered, or education is at a stand ; but which, at the 
same time, becomes a serious tax to a large family in 
humble circumstances. 

Happily, the remedy for this difficulty is equally ob- 
vious and simple. Libraries are money-saving institu- 
tions, mental levers, — bringing within the reach of the 
poor what was formerly considered the exclusive privi- 
lege of the rich. And nowhere can their effects be more 
beneficial than in a school. Indeed, they are indispen- 
sable to universal education. For not only do they re- 
duce the school expenses to the merest trifle ; but they 
provide food for the craving, irrepressible appetite for 
knowledge, which has been created there. How can 
any one pretend to be friendly to a good universal edu- 
cation, and yet in opposition to district hbraries ? Why 
take pains to create a desire for knowledge, in the com- 
munity, and obstinately refuse the only means of gratify- 
ing it .'' When you have given a person a taste for 
knowledge, and the means of gratification, he can hardly 
fail of being a happy man ; unless, indeed, a most per- 
verse selection of books is put into his hands. He is 
placed in contact with the best society, in every period 
of history ; with the wisest, the wittiest ; with the ten- 
derest, the bravest, and the purest, characters, which 
have adorned humanity. It is hardly possible, but that 
his character should take a higher and better tone, from 
the constant habit of associating with a class of thinkers, 
to say the least of it, above the average of humanity. 
It is morally impossible, but that the manners should 
take a tinge of good breeding and civilization, from hav- 
ing constantly before one's eyes, the way in which the 
best bred and the best informed men have talked and 
conducted themselves, in their intercourse with each 
other. There is a gentle but perfectly irresistible coer- 
10 



110 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

cion, in a habit of reading, well directed, over the whole 
tenor of a man's character and conduct, which is not the 
less effectual, because it works insensibly, and because 
it is really the last thing he dreams of. It civilizes the 
conduct of men, and suffers them not to remain barba- 
rous= Another of the great advantages of reading is, 
that it furnishes us with interesting and safe topics of 
conversation with our friends. To Hve with books is to 
inhabit a region far above the din, and turmoil, and petty 
vexations, which unnecessarily engross the minds of 
some, who pretend to cultivation. It is very difficult 
to talk of people, without violating the laws of charhy 
and of truth ; it is, therefore, best to avoid it. By sub- 
stituting books, and the vast variety of characters and 
opinions which they present, ample scope for the ex- 
pression of thought and' feehng is afforded, for the dis- 
cussion of various questions, for sharpening each other's 
wits by coUision of sentiment, correcting the judgment 
by comparison and discrimination, and strengthening the 
memory by repetition and quotation. 

School hbraries ought to consist of two kinds of books : 
viz. books for the use of the school, and books for circu- 
lation. Of the former, there should be a great variety 
for the reading classes, and not more than four or five of 
a kind. For, as they will only be needed while the 
classes are reciting, one book will answer very well for 
two scholars. Of the books for study, such as geogra- 
phies and treatises of written arithmetic, a sufficient num- 
ber will be wanted, to supply one for each student. 
The remainder of the library should consist of a sufficient 
variety of subjects, from the simplest story-book for the 
child of six years, to the most valuable works on history, 
biography, poetry, miscellanies, and science ; with a 
sprinkling of the best novels of Scott, Cooper, Goldsmith, 
Johnson, Richardson, Miss Burney, Miss Austen, &c. 
A list of suitable books will be found in the Appendix. 

The district library may be supported as follows : Let 
the sum of forty, fifty, or sixty dollars, or more, be raised 
by subscription, or by a tax on freehold property, for the 
first commencement ; and let it be supported and enlarged 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. Ill 

by a tax on the scholar, or other inhabitants, at the follow- 
ing rates, viz. 

For each person, over eight years of age, for every 
school-term of six months, or less, .... 25 cts. 
For each child, under eight, 12 J." 

Every inhabitant of the district, vi^hether attending 
school or not, to have the privilege of using the circulat- 
ing hbrary, by payment of the tax ; but na books to be 
carried away by any one, till a bond from some respon- 
sible person was deposited in the hands of the librarian, 
for each person using them, to insure proper treatment, 
and the return of the books. 

A deduction of twenty per cent, ought to be made, from 
the tax of those who own no real estate. The reason 
for this discrimination is, that the Hbrary will actually in- 
crease the value of all the real estate, the owners of 
which are, consequently, the most interested in the es- 
tablishment. The tax should be made payable in ad- 
vance. 

The district teacher should be the librarian. She 
should inspect every book, carefully, that was brought 
into the library, and take a memorandum of any injury 
that accrued to the books, for which proper fines should 
be levied. The librarian should herself be responsible 
for injury done to the books used in the school, it being 
a part of her duty to teach the pupils how to use the 
books, and to see that they are properly taken care of. 

The purchasing committees of the several districts in 
the town ought to meet, occasionally, to consult as to the 
purchase of books, and appoint one purchaser for the 
whole town ; so that they might be procured at the low- 
est prices, and to prevent the same book being purchased 
for different libraries. Once a year, or oftener, they 
might meet, to make exchanges of books, by which each 
individual would have the privilege of using, at one time 
or another, all the books in town. 

What an addition it would be to the happiness and wel- 
fare of society, were such establishments as these spread, 
universally, over our country ! O, what a beautiful pros- 



112 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

pect for the true patriot, to see the fireside of every peas- 
ant made cheerful by the delights of science ; to find, 
every where, the long, dreary Winter evening trans- 
formed into a season of delightful mental recreation ; to 
hear, in every cottage, 

" The poet or historian's page, by one 
Made vocal for the amusement of the rest," 

while the other members of the family were busily en- 
gaged in their various useful avocations. The storm, 
truly, might rage without ; but within, would be a holy 
calm. 



CHAPTER VII. 

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 

Having now, in imagination, erected our schoolhouse 
in a pleasant situation, remote from noise and dust, in a 
lot of sufficient size for exercise and amusement, neatly 
fenced, shaded, here and there, with clumps of trees, dec- 
orated with flowers, and furnished with accommodations 
for healthful gymnastics ; having constructed the building 
of sufficient size and height, on correct principles as re- 
gards heat, air, and light; with seats and desks so as to 
place the pupils of every age perfectly at their ease ; with 
a woodhouse large enough to contain fuel for the Winter, 
and ample room over and above for exercise for the schol- 
ars in bad weather ; having provided an excellent hbrary 
of books, for the school as well as for general circulation, 
slates and pencils for every pupil, however small ; having 
made a good selection of a teacher, educated at an excel- 
lent teachers' seminary, who has engaged to devote her 
whole attention to the school, without limit, as to time ; 
having established a correct system of disci phne, founded 
on the best principles of human nature ; — all that remains 
is, to point out the proper mode of carrying into efl^ect 
the principles laid down in the teachers' seminary, in de- 
tails sufficiently minute, especially so far as regards the 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. tl3 

first steps, the foundation of education ; fully persuaded, 
that, if this be well done, there is Httle danger of failure 
in the higher branches. Let us, then, commence with a 
young pupil, as ignorant of literature as the negro child 
in Central Africa, and proceed regularly with him, through 
most of the studies of the primary school. For the sake 
of perspicuity, we shall not follow the child backwards 
and forwards, from one study to another ; but pursue each 
subject to its close, and then take up the next, and, when 
we have thus examined each subject, separately, close the 
subject by remarks on the order and arrangement of 
studies. 

Reading and Orthography. 

Worcester's Primer is an admirable little book for be- 
ginners. We shall use it, therefore, as our First Book. 
Commencing with a child ignorant of his letters, we 
should turn to page 15, where we find pictures of a man, 
a cat, a hat, and a dog, opposite the corresponding names, 
in capitals, as well as in small letters. The teacher may 
commence thus :* 

Teacher. What is that ? 

Child. A man. 

T. That is the picture of a man. Would you not like 
to know the icord man ? 

C. Yes. 

T, (pointing to the word.) There it is. Look at it 
well, that you may know it, again. Now, do you think 
you shall know it ? 

To this question, the child generally answers, yes. 

T, (turning to page 17 .) Whichof these words (point- 
ing to Man, Dog, Cup) is Man ? 

Unless the child has been brought up in habits of at- 
tention by his parents, his heedlessness will be apparent, 
by his ignorance of the word. And this will generally 
be the case. So, turning back to page 15, the teacher 
can say, 

* In order that what follows may be fully understood, the reader 
should have a copy of the Primer before him, and turn to the pages 
indicat€d> 

10* 



114 

T. You are wrong. See, it does not look like that. 
You should give more attention. Look at it again, (page 
15, trace the form of the word with a pointer.) Are 
you sure you will know it now ? 

C. Yes. 

Most children will now know the word. But a few 
will be found so heedless, as still not to have given any 
attention. With these, there will be some difficulty. 
But, as soon as their attention can be caught, the instant 
one word is known, the spell is broken, and all will go 
smooth. Persevere with the first word. If you cannot 
succeed in the first lesson, give him two, three, four. 
Have a little patience. In some favorable moment, you 
will gain his attention, and the difficulty, then, is over. 
Such is the testimony of many teachers. 

One word is enough for the first lesson. And now 
comes an exercise, which must always, without one sol- 
itary exception^ follow reading. There must be no ex- 
cuse for want of time. The teacher must take time, 
whatever else he may slight. 

T. What have you been reading about ? 

C. About a man. 

At the second lesson, see if he can still point out the 
word, man, (page 17.) If not, repeat, as before. But 
if he knows it, show him the next word, and say, that is 
cat. There is no occasion to make further use of pic- 
tures, for the present. Turning, again, to page 17, — 

T. Which of these words (man, cat, hat) is cat .'' 

When he knows this word, conclude, as before : 

T. What have you been reading about to-day ? 

C. A cat. 

T. Nothing else ? 

C: Yes, a man. 

By a similar process, the other seven words will readily 
be learned by the child. But it is scarcely possible to re- 
peat, too often, in this stage of education, that a minute ex- 
amination of the child, as to what he has read, must be gone 
into, at the close of every lesson. No excuse can be ad- 
mitted, unless the house be on fire, or tumbling about 
your ears. Should the teacher find there is not time, the 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 115 

lessons may be made shorter, or fewer given per day. 
Three a week, with questioning, are of far more value 
than twenty without. The developement of the faculty 
of attention, the formation of a habit , is all important. If 
that be done early, there will be no difficulty in educating 
the child. It ought, then, to be commenced at the^r^^ 
lesson, and never, for a moment, be lost sight of, during 
the whole course of education. 

Until our schools are completely reformed, as to read- 
ing, great care will be necessary, to prevent beginners 
from acquiring the prevailing bad habits. One of the 
most pernicious of these is, the practice of raising the 
voice at the end of every word, when they are separately 
pronounced, as by beginners. It is exceedingly difficult, 
not to say impossible, to overcome such habits, when fully 
formed ; v/hile nothing, but a little attention on the part 
of the teacher, is necessary to prevent their formation. 
Let, then, the attention of all the teachers of the primary 
school be wide awake on this subject. One hour, at the 
commencement, is worth days, weeks, months, at a later 
period. It is also highly important, that our little begin- 
ners pronounce the consonants full and strong, at the end 
of syllables and words ; more especially, when they are 
doubled. The )' requires particular attention. In such 
words as far, star, farm, barn, born, burn, &c., the usual 
practice is merely to lengthen the sound of the vowel, omit- 
ting the sound of the r altogether ; and, in such words as 
mild, build, field, mind, the d is almost uniformly omitted 
by common readers and speakers. Let the teacher, then, 
take especial care of the consonant sounds. The vow- 
els may be mispronounced, but can never be omitted. 
It is in the consonants, that articulation essentially con- 
sists. Webster, in his dictionary, uniformly calls them 
articulations. They may be said to form the thews 
and sinews of speech ; and their distinct utterance, con- 
stitutes one of the chief distinctions between good and 
bad speakers. Sheridan says, that, " in several northern 
counties of England, there are scarce any of the inhab- 
itants who can pronounce the letter r at all. Yet it would 
be strange to suppose, that all these people should have 



116 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

been so unfortunately distinguished from other natives of 
this island, as to be born with any peculiar defect in their 
organs, when this matter is so plainly to be accounted 
for, upon the principle of imitation and habit." Yes : 
such defects, undoubtedly, do arise principally from imi- 
tation and habit. But the animal and intellectual tem- 
perament has also some connexion with this subject. 
'' A sluggish action of the mind," says Dr. Porter, of 
Andover, " imparts a correspondent character to the ac- 
tion of the vocal organs, and makes speech only a suc- 
cession of indolent, half-formed sounds, more resembling 
the muttering of a dream, than the clear articulation we 
ought to expect, in one who knows what he is saying. 
Excess of vivacity, on the other hand, or excess of sen- 
sibility, often produce a hasty, confused utterance. Del- 
icacy speaks in a timid, feeble voice ; and the fault of 
indistinctness is often aggravated in a bashful child, by 
the indiscreet chidings of his teacher, designed to push 
him into greater speed in spelling out his early lessons ; 
while he has little familiarity v/ith the form and sound, 
and less with the meaning, of words." 

But to return to our Primer. In lesson 2d, pages 18, 
19, will be found nine other words, to be learned as in 
lesson 1st, turning to page 20, to see if they are known. 

Our pupil having thus acquired a small stock of words, it 
may here be proper to commence their analysis, by show- 
ing him, that each of these words is formed out of three 
characters, called letters, of which he should now learn the 
names. He may also be told, that these letters are of 
two kinds, capital and small letters, generally differing in 
shape. As it is useful to know the order of the alphabet, 
for consulting dictionaries, &c., it will be proper to teach 
letters in that order, taking care, however, always to 
show him the one he is acquiring in some wordr, as well 
as in the alphabet, and only learning one letter at a time. 
This exercise should not interfere with the reading les- 
sons. These should still go on, so that he may daily 
add to his stock of words. 

As soon as the child has become acquainted with the 
names of his letters, and this will generally be in a few 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 117 

weeks, — for now that a child sees, distinctly, the use of 
books, he will rapidly acquire any knowledge connected 
with them ; as soon as he knows his letters, then, a new 
exercise may be added to his lesson, namely, spelling 
some of the words that he has just read. The teacher, 
however, should be contented with his spelHng them on 
the book^ at first ; afterwards getting him, by degrees, to 
try to remember their form, so as to spell without book. 
But this orthographical exercise must be kept entirely 
unconnected with reading. The absurd practice of 
spelling a word, in order to learn its pronunciation, must 
never be resorted to. 

Nor should the child ever be allowed to study out^ as it 
is called, but, more properly, commit to memory, his spel- 
ling lessonsc The object should be to get the child into 
a habit of observing the form of words, while reading. 
If he attain this habit, and it is one of easy acquisition, 
he will be a correct speller ; but, without it, although he 
should commit to memory the contents of all the spelling- 
books in existence, he never will. Any one, who doubts 
this, has only to inquire, how he became acquainted with 
the orthography of the terms of science, the various in- 
flections of the nouns, pronouns, verbs, &c., and a vast 
number of proper names. From his speUing-book ? Cer- 
tainly not ; very few of them are to be found there ; but, 
simply, by having met with them in the course of his 
reading. Another still more unanswerable argument lies 
in the fact, that, in the study of foreign languages, we 
never think of resorting to this absurd practice, and we 
are very seldom at a loss for their orthography. In fact, 
it has been observed, that foreigners generally spell more 
correctly than natives, because they read the language 
with more attention, and never trouble themselves with 
spelling-books. When we come to. speak of composi- 
tion, another mode of improving in orthography will be 
developed. 

In lesson od, page 23 of the Primer, the pupil is first 
introduced to short sentences ; and here his reading prop- 
erly commences. Each picture in this lesson is accom- 
panied by two sentences, and some of the words con- 



118 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

tained in the first, are repeated in the second. Accord- 
ingly, when the pupil has pronounced the words of the 
first sentence, after the teacher, he should be required to 
point out those same words in the line below ; and, as 
soon as he knows all the words in both, the teacher should 
say,— 

T. Now you have named the words. But this is not 
reading. Listen to me. I shall first name the words, 
and then read them : A — nice — fan. A nice fan, (the 
teacher reading the article a, rapidly, and the two em- 
phatic words, slowly and forcibly.) This — is — a — nice 
— fan. This is a nice fan. (Here are three strongly 
emphatic words, and two that should be run over, rapidly 
and slightly.) Now do you name the words, and after- 
wards read them. 

These two sentences are enough for a lesson. As 
soon as the pupil has read them properly, as well as can 
be done by a good reader, the teacher, closing the book, 
asks, 

T. What have you been reading about ? 

C. A fan. 

T. What sort of a fan ? 

C. A nice fan. 

Before we pursue our lessons further, it will be proper 
to point out a few errors in pronunciation, which, owing 
to their producing an emphasis on the wrong word, are 
very injurious to good reading, more especially, as they 
are words of very frequent occurrence. The errors al- 
luded to lie in the sound of the article, a ; in the letter 
/i, at the beginning of several of the pronouns, namely, 
he, him, his^ and her ; and their compounds, himself] 
herself, &c. ; and the letter y, in the words my and thy. 

Jl is either a letter, or an article. As the former, it 
is pronounced like a in fate ; as the latter, Hke a in the 
second syllable of liar, palace, rival, abbacy ; (see Wor- 
cester's ' Pronouncing Dictionary,' Boston, 1838.) Most 
speakers and readers, in New England, however, intend 
to pronounce the tcord, a, the same as the letter, a ; but, 
so great is the inherent impropriety of giving the long 
sound to, and, of course, placing emphasis on, so insig- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 119 

nificant a word, that, whenever the speaker or reader is 
fully occupied with his subject, he is sure to pronounce 
it right ; it being only when he thinks of the pronuncia- 
tion^ that he gives it the wrong sound. The consequence 
is, that bad, stiff speakers pronounce it uniformly ; while 
good speakers pronounce it sometimes the one way and 
sometimes the other. The same remarks will apply to a 
large number of words compounded with a, such as about^ 
afraidj around^ aivay^ &c., only that the error, in the 
compound words, lies rather in the accent, than in the 
emphasis. For, when we give the long instead of the 
obscure sound of « to these words, we necessarily accent 
both syllables, which is contrary to the genius of the En- 
glish language, which admits but of one accent in dissyl- 
lables. The only exception given by orthoepists to this 
rule, is the word, amen ; and this is, really, no exception, 
at all, as it is a Hebrew, not an English, word.* 

Another error, with respect to the indefinite article, is 
this : The word was originally one, as may readily be per- 
ceived from the analogy of all the languages derived from the 
Latin, {unus, Latin ; un, une, French ; uno, una, Span- 
ish ; hum, huma, Portuguese ; un, una, Italian.) Thence 
it was corrupted, or shortened, into an, the last letter of 
which is dropped, for the sake of euphony, when it is 
followed by a word having a consonant sound at the com- 
mencement. Hence, when the h is not pronounced, as 
in the words, hou?', honest, the n should be retained ; 
but, when it is pronounced, as in hair and hat, the n 
should be dropped. Unfortunately, most printers, to 
whom such affairs are generally intrusted by authors, un- 
able to discriminate, or unwilling to take the trouble, have 
retained the n in all cases before the h. The consequence 
is, that bad readers, and they are more than ten to one, 
pronounce the n, whether the h is silent or not, because 
they find it printed so, calling it an house, instead of a 
house ; an hair, instead of a hair, &c. The same remark 
applies to the word one, pronounced wun ; union, pro- 
nounced yuneyun, and other similar cases, where the n 

* The obscure sound of all the vowels is precisely the same : as 
liar, brier, irregular, idol, sulphwr, trn]y. 



120 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

should be dropped, for the sake of euphony. All these 
originate in the same naanner as the former ; simply by 
the printer discriminating by his eye^ in place of his ear. 
They ought to be printed and read, such a one ; a union ; 
a useful man^ &c. A somewhat similar error occurs in 
most of our English Bibles, and is copied by many of the 
ministers in their pulpits, but nowhere else. In old 
times, before politeness introduced the use of you and 
your in place of thee and thy., the words mine and thine 
were used,for the sake of euphony, in place of my and thy^ 
when the following word commenced with a vowel sound. 
Hence, in the Bible, we have my people, mine ear ; my 
son, mine eye ; consequently, we should also have my 
house, my heart, mine honor, mine heir. But, the printers 
having committed the same blunder here, we have mine 
house and mine heart, for my house and my heart ; and 
this error in typography leads to the same error in pronun- 
ciation as was noticed respecting an house, an hat. 

The next error, to be noticed, relates to the pronunci- 
ation of the letter /i, in certain cases. H \s an anomaly 
among letters, being neither vowel nor consonant, but 
simply, as Webster observes, " the mark of a stronger 
breathing., than that which precedes the utterance of any 
other letter." It never can be sounded without some de- 
gree of emphasis ; hence, ahhough orthoepists have given 
no rule on the subject, no good reader or speaker ever 
pronounces it in the personal pronouns mentioned above, 
unless they are emphatic words in the sentence. This 
will be at once perceived, by reading aloud the following 
lines, when it will be found, that the h is pronounced in 
the words printed in small capitals, but not in those which 
are in the Itahc character, and with an apostrophe (') 
placed before them. 

If HE command, who dares oppose } 
Wide as '/le spreads ^his golden flame. 
To HIM who washed us in ''his blood. 
Behold ''him present with ''his aid. 
Were but our hearts prepared like his. 
He sent ^his son with power to save. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 121 

With respect to the demonstrative pronouns, it may be 
observed, generally, that poor readers and speakers pro- 
nounce them, uniformly, with too much emphasis, so as 
frequently to change the sense. 

The words thy and mi/, should have the long sound of 
i, when emphatic ; on other occasions, its obscure sound. 

The following words, and their compounds, are almost 
uniformly pronounced properly in conversation, and im- 
properly in reading : hasten, chasten, fasten, Hsten, glis- 
ten, christen, moisten ; castle, nestle, trestle, wrestle, 
thistle, whistle, epistle, bristle, gristle, jostle, apostle, 
throstle, bustle, justle, rustle ; in all of which the t should 
be omitted in pronunciation ; and in the word clothes, the 
th should be omitted. An innovation has lately been in- 
troduced, in some parts of New England, in the accentu- 
ation of the word legislature, by, laying the stress on the 
second syllable, which is believed to be entirely devoid of 
respectable authority. Sheridan, Walker, Jones, En- 
field, Fulton and Knight, Jameson, Webster, and Wor- 
cester, all place the accent on the first syllable, and Perry 
on the third. Such innovations should be discountenanced 
by every good speaker, as leading to interminable confu- 
sion. 

The above remarks are intended for the use of the 
teacher. As they all relate to unnatural, acquired errors, 
a very slight degree of care, on his part, will prevent their 
being copied by beginners ; but some pains will be neces- 
sary, to break the older pupils of their bad habits in this 
respect. These errors would not have been noticed here, 
had the WTiter been able to refer to any book where they 
have been pointed out : but, unfortunately, they seem to 
have been totally overlooked ; and it was thought wrong to 
omit them, as they essentially interfere with good reading. 

There are many other errors or imperfections in read- 
ing, not even alluded to by authors treating of this sub- 
ject ; but, unfortunately, most of them are only capable 
of being exemplified in a proper manner orally. It is 
to be hoped, however, that, before long, teachers' semi- 
naries will be established, where this, and other serious 
errors in teaching, will be fully rectified. Meanwhile, 
11 



122 THE teacher's manual. 

we shall close this part of our subject, by noticing two 
prominent imperfections in readers, generally. 

The first is, the neglect of proper pauses at the stops. 
The directions, generally given in schools, are, to stop at 
a comma as long as we can count one ; at a semicolon, 
so long as to count tioo ; a colon, three ; a period, /oitr. 
The two last are, evidently, too much. Perhaps a better 
rule would be, at a comma, one ; at a semicolon, colon, 
or period, two ; at the end of a paragraph, or change of 
subject, four. But this, though not much more than half 
the length of the pauses generally directed, is longer than 
is ever practised. Most readers make no stop at all, at 
either comma, semicolon, or colon ; they merely lengthen 
the sound of the last syllable, and they stop not longer 
than to count one at a period. In this manner, the words 
and ideas become so huddled together, that it is very dif- 
ficult to follow, and catch the sense. The teacher ought 
to insist on a complete cessation of sound at a comma, a 
cessation of double the length at the other points, and 
this, again, to be doubled, on a change of subject. 

The other defect to be noticed, is the want of sufficient 
variety of expression. There is too much sameness in 
the degree, both of force and of rapidity. The emphatic 
words should be pronounced strong and slow, and the 
other words softly and rapidly. Language is made up 
of words and syllables ; and these syllables, like notes in 
music, are of all possible lengths. It is a rude and incor- 
rect distinction, which the Latin readers have made, in 
classifying them merely into long and short. The word 
all, in length of sound, may be represented by a minim, 
the longest note in modern music ; but the word indivis- 
ible, though composed of five syllables, should be spoken 
in a time equally short ; consequently, each syllable, in 
the latter word, is only one fifth of the length of the mon- 
osyllable. If we inspect the fine adagios of Haydn and 
Beethoven,v we shall find them composed of sounds, va- 
rying in length, from the slowest note to those of the 
greatest quickness ; and if we examine a speech of Shak- 
speare and Milton, we shall find them also composed of 
words ponderous and slow, mingled with particles and 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 123 

syllables of great rapidity. The strong expressions, prop- 
erly sustained by the voice, invariably convey the sense. 
The smaller words, the mere links oManguage, should be 
driven together. This subject cannot easily be exempli- 
fied in writing ; but, in general terms, it may be said, that 
the reading in schools would be much improved, if the 
force of the emphasis were at least doubled, and the ra- 
pidity of the other words also at least doubled. 

Having thus pointed out some of the principal errors 
to be avoided in reading, we are now prepared to resume 
our lessons in Worcester's Primer. As the vocabulary 
of the pupil extends, so should the proportionate length 
of his lesson. For some little time, he will have to be 
told how to pronounce every new word ; but he will soon 
acquire, of himself, correct notions of the powers of the 
letters, which will enable him to find them out, himself. 
The teacher may aid him in this, by uttering the sound 
of the power (not the name) of the letter, at the beginning 
of the word, about which he is at a loss. For instance ; 
suppose he did not know the word a^oss. The teacher 
might give the sound or or cro. When he comes to words 
of more than one syllable, he may be assisted, by covering 
the second syllable till he had pronounced the first, &c. 
But, on no account, should a child be directed or allowed 
to spell a word, in order to ascertain its pronunciation. 
The folly of this practice has been fully shown, in Part 
I. Chapter V., which see. When a child has been stopped 
.for a word, he ought to read the sentence over again, so 
that he may not lose the idea ; and the teacher ought to 
keep steadily in mind, that the sine qua non^ the grand 
object of the school, is to teach the child to connect 
words with ideas. 

There is considerable inconvenience in forming chil- 
dren into classes, until they can read with some degree of 
fluency ; but, if the teacher is much pressed for time, he 
can collect half a dozen little ones round him, though he 
ought, perhaps, to give lessons to each separately. 

After the pupil has gone through the Primer, his les- 
sons, for a day or two, may consist of examining the pic- 
tures, separately, and telling his teacher what was said 



124 THE teacher's manual. 

about this, what about that. An excellent exercise, too, 
for giving him a command of language, and improving his 
power of observation, would be, to make him explain all 
the larger prints, and point out what was on the foreground, 
what on the background, the right, the left, &c., requir- 
ing him to mention the most minute particulars. 

If he is found to be well acquainted with the book, 
which will generally be the case on the first reading, if 
the teacher has done him justice, he should now begin a 
new one. The author of the Primer has furnished an 
excellent series of books ; but, unfortunately, when the 
child has gone through the first, he is not yet prepared to 
take up the second. And this is a defect attached to 
every series we have seen. The next books in order, 
then, should be, the ' Easy Primer,' (printed by Merriam, 
Springfield,) the ' Franklin Primer,' the ' Columbian 
Primer,' Gallaudet's ' Picture Defining Book,' ' Juvenile 
Lessons,' or any other books containing short and easy 
sentences, suited to infantile capacity.* Works on ge- 
ography, history, &c., (see Chapter I.,) may follow. 
Pushing a child forward, faster than he is prepared to go, 
is a serious evil, in all our schools ; more especially, in 
reading. If he is put into long sentences before he can 
read short ones, fluently, he must give so much attention 
to the pronunciation, that he has none to bestow on the 
sense. But, while this evil must be sedulously avoided, 
the child must not be kept reading the same book over 
and over. This, truly, would be avoiding Scylla to fall 
on Charybdis. During the first year, he should read a 
number of books of nearly the same grade, till his vocab- 
ulary has become sufficiently extensive to enable him to 
read long sentences with tolerable ease, on the first trial. 
The school library will afford this variety, without addi- 
tional expense to the parent. 

There is a danger attendant on the use of the improved 

* * The Little Philosopher,' by Jacob Abbot, is an excellent reading 
book, after the ' Juvenile Lessons.' Let the class read the questions, 
by turns, and the teacher, after the reading of each question, indicate 
what child shall give the answer ; which should be done as rapidly as 
possible. Let the large print be read through first, reserving the small 
print to a second reading, or review. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 125 

first books, which teachers should be careful to avoid, 
else it may be productive of bad consequences. The 
books are so interesting to children, that they Hsten to 
their schoolmates' reading, and thus, sometimes, get 
familiar with the sentences and stories, before they can 
read them, insomuch that, by the help of the attendant 
picture, or a knowledge of only the first word, they go 
fluently through their lessons, as if they were reading 
them, when, in fact, they know little more than the first 
word of the sentence or story. This, however, can 
easily be discovered, by asking them words out of the 
middle of the sentences, or occasionally making them 
read a sentence backwards. The evil can never attain 
any head with an attentive teacher, especially after hav- 
ing been warned of the danger. 

After reading a little geography and history, newspa- 
pers would afford admirable lessons for the reading 
classes. These might, no doubt, be procured from the 
parents, without charge ; and, when there was only one 
of a kind, the children might read by turns, or pass it 
from hand to hand. Eveiy part might be read, and 
every part might furnish a useful lesson. Let us ex- 
amine the first that comes to hand, which proves to be 
one from Philadelphia. Here we find various advertise- 
ments of different lines from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, 
which might give rise to interesting descriptions of canals 
and railways, and of a country, two hundred miles of 
which was a wilderness, traversed only by packhorses, 
less than forty years ago. These advertisements are 
followed by a broker's call for small notes, or shinplas- 
ters, sales of raisins, of wine, looking-glasses, whips, 
buffalo robes, spectacles, cedar-ware, anthracite, cabinet 
furniture, hats, macaroni, nails and spikes, Bordeaux 
almonds, stoves, &c. ; notices of companies for insur- 
ance on lives, fire insurance companies, exchange offices, 
loan companies, coal companies ; lectures on phrenology, 
' on the Augustan age,' ' on the life and writings of Shak- 
speare,' ' on the cause of storms ;' balls, concerts, thea- 
tres, soup-house tickets, auctions, houses and farms for 
sale, &c. ; with quack medicines, for the certain cure of 
11* 



126 THE teacher's manual. 

every disorder incident to man, except vice, old age, and 
death. Leaving the advertisements, we have political 
remarks and discussions, legislative proceedings, news 
from Texas, accounts of war and revolution in Mexico, 
discussions on free banking, accounts of a dreadful inun- 
dation, reviews of new books, sales of stocks, a list of 
letter-bags at the Exchange, and, lastly, a list of mar- 
riages and deaths. V/hat a fine scope would here be 
presented, for questions and discussions by the pupils, 
and explanations by the teacher ! What an opportunity 
for practical illustrations of geography and history ! And 
could a fitter time ever occur, for im.pressing on the 
mind of the pupil the necessity, of receiving all pohtical 
disquisitions with caution ; of always remembering the 
motto, Jludi alteram partem ?* an impression, which 
might be much strengthened, by having papers on differ- 
ent sides of the great political question, which can prob- 
ably be procured in every town. One newspaper, one 
single sheet, might afford interesting subjects for inquiry 
and discussion for a school, for months. How many 
books might these readings cause to be searched, which 
might, otherwise, have lain closed ! What expansion 
of mind, in the little world of school, by the proper re- 
view of the newspaper ! 

" This folio of four pages, happy work ! 
Which not even critics criticise, — 
What is it, but a inup of busy life, 
Its fluctuations, and its vast concerns ?" — Cowper. 

The reflections, which it excites in the mind of the 
amiable poet, are so appropriate, that a quotation from 
them may, perhaps, be pardoned. 

" 'T is pleasant, through the loopholes of retreat, 
To peep at such a world ; to see the stir 
Of the great Babel, and not feel the crowd ; 
To hear the roar she sends through all her gates, 
At a safe distance, where the dying sound 
Falls, a soft murmur, on th' uninjured ear. 
Thus sitting, and surveying thus, at ease, 
The globe and its concerns, I seem advanced 

* Hear the other side. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 127 

To some secure and more than mortal height, 
That liberates and exempts me from them all. 
It turns, submitted to my view, turns round. 
With all its generations ; I behold 
The tumult, and am still. The sound of war 
Has lost its terrors ere it reaches me ; 
Grieves, but alarms me not. I mourn the pride 
And avarice, that make man a wolf to man ; 
Hear the faint echo of those brazen throats, 
By which he speaks the language of his heart, 
And sigh, but never tremble at the sound. 
He* travels and expatiates ; as the bee, 
From flower to flower, so he, from land to land ; 
The mannersj custom, policy, of all. 
Pay contribution to the store he gleans ; 
He sucks intelligence in every clime. 
And spreads the honey of his deep research. 
At his return, — a rich repast for me. 
He travels, and I too. I tread his deck. 
Ascend his topmast, through his peering eye 
Discover countries ; with a kindred heart 
Suffer his woes, and share in his escapes ; 
While Fancy, like the finger of a clock, 
Runs the great circuit, and is still at home."t 

Before leaving the subject of reading, let us urge, once 
more, on the teacher, the importance of allowing nothing 
to be read in school, without requiring a full account of 
it from the class. iVt first, this may be educed by ques- 
tions ; but, as soon as possible, the child should be led, 
by degrees, to give an account of his reading, without this 
aid. And, where questions are used, great care must be 
taken to avoid leading ones, such as, " Was Jane a good 
girl .'' Did she want some plums .?" instead of, " What 
kind of a girl was Jane .'^" or, " What was said of 
Jane .f"' Let there also be questions relating to the 
general train of thought, and to topics growing out of it. 
Let there be questions which will lead the little logician 
to the exercise of his reflecting and reasoning powers, 
and to the developeraent of his moral feelings. Great 
care must be taken, to prevent guessing at answers. 
The children should be made to understand, that they 
must not attempt to answer, unless they have a distinct 
recollection of the subject. By the use of leading ques- 

* The editor. t ' Task,' Book iv. 1. 88^ &c. 



128 THE teacher's manual. 

tions, and by allowing guessing, some teachers have suf- 
fered this most admirable discipline for the mind to de- 
generate into a mere form. The use of books with 
printed questions is also apt to produce evil effects, 
unless care is taken by the teacher. For, sometimes, a 
pupil will select the words of the book furnishing the 
answers, and commit them to memory, and thus appear 
fully master of a subject, of which he is profoundly ig- 
norant. In order to keep the attention of the whole 
class wide awake, it will be proper, fi7'st to give the 
question, and then to name the pupil who is to answer ; 
letting it be always understood, also, that each child is 
liable to be called on, any number of times, and must al- 
ways be ready. 

Terms should be explained to children in a way suited 
to their capacity, not by formal definitions, or by synony- 
mous expressions. This last is merely the substitution 
of one word for another ; and, very frequently, the last 
is more unintelligible than the first, and, besides, creates 
the habit of resting satisfied with mere sounds, instead of 
ideas. But the explanation should be given by going 
back to simple, elementary truths, and by illustrations, 
drawn from objects and events with which they are fa- 
miliar.* But the child himself should be called on, for 
the signification of words and phrases in the lesson ; and 
he should be accustomed to examine the context for 
their meaning. He should also be required to give his 

* I called , one day, at the parsonage, with a neighbor of ours, a Mrs. 
Moodey. After a pause, "Mr. Pottle," said she to the minister, 
*' I am almost ashamed to confess my ignorance, but you said some- 
thing, in your last discourse, which I did not exactly understand." 
*' Well, madam," said he, with a loud voice and a stern expression, 
*' and pray what was it?" " O, dear sir," she replied, evidently 
confounded by his manner, " I don't doubt, in the least, that it was 
owing to my weak understanding ; but you said, sir, — speaking of the 
wiles of Satan, — 'as if as though to circumvent thee.'" "Oh, — 
ah, — yes, Mrs. Moodey," he answered, "I well remember that ex- 
pression. The meaning of those words, madam," raising his voice to 
a terrible pitch, and striking his hand violently upon the table, " the 
meaning of those words is this, Mrs. Moodey, — as if as though 
TO CIRCUMVENT thee!" " Oh, dear me, parson Pottle," cried 
Mrs. Moodey, with a trembling voice, " how very clear you make it 
now !" — ' Temperance Tales,' A^'ol. v, p. 115. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 129 

opinions about matters of fact, the object of actions men- 
tioned, and the thing settled Idj any chain of reasoning. 

It is not to be expected, that all the teachers, into 
whose hands this book may fall, will believe in the prac- 
ticability of this mode of teaching reading ; and some 
may probably carry their incredulity so far, as not even 
to be willing to give it a trial. These last, however, it 
is believed, may find useful suggestions, even after dis- 
carding, entirely, the new mode of teaching ; and it is to 
be hoped, that prejudice will not induce them to reject 
all, because a part does not accord with their views. 
To those who are willing to give it a trial, we would 
say, let it be a fair trial ; be sure that it is perfectly un- 
derstood, and that the course pointed out be followed ex- 
actly, and we have no fears for the result ; for the exper- 
iment has repeatedly succeeded, even under circumstan- 
ces by no means favorable. And let it never be forgot- 
ten, that, although the progress of the child is much more 
rapid than by the old method, this is a matter of but 
secondary importance. It is in the avoidance of the 
bad habits^ engendered by the synthetic course, that its 
chief merit consists. It is because the child sees the 
value and use of his daily acquisitions immediately ; 
because he unites sense with sound from the very first, 
that a trial is so urgently pressed upon the teacher. Let 
a fair trial be given, then, and, above all, let there be a 
hope, a desire, of success. 

The spelling lessons should be regularly continued 
after the reading, the teacher selecting suitable words out 
of the chapter read, until the pupils can write composi- 
tions of some length, when they may be discontinued 
altogether, as writing is by far the surest mode of ac- 
quiring a knowledge of orthography. 

There are so many anomalies in the English language, 
that rules for pronunciation are not generally of much 
service to young students. There are two, however, of 
such extensive application, that it will be well for the 
teacher, occasionally, to exemplify them on the black- 
board, as an exercise for his pupils. 



130 

1. The vowels at the end of a syllable have the sound 
from which they are named ; namely, 

Ba, Be, Bi, Bo, Bu. 
But, when the vowels are followed by a consonant, 
their sound is changed, and becomes short ; as, 
Bat, Bet, Bit, Bot, But. 
The original sound is restored, by placing an e after 
the consonant ; as. 

Bate, Bete, Bite, Bote, Bute. 
F, when a vowel, has precisely the sound of i, under 
similar circumstances ; as, 

By, Byt, Byte. 

2. C and G have two sounds, the one hard, the other 
soft. They are soft before e, and i, and y ; in every 
other situation, they are hard ; as, 

Car, Centj Cit, Cot, Cut, Cynthia^ Music. 

Gas, Gentle, Gin, Gone, Gun, Gymnastics, Hog. 

There are numerous exceptions to the second rule ; but, 
as these occur only in famihar words, the pupil is not 
likely to go astray. 

Teacher. What is the use of the two e's in George } 
and the u, in guest and guilt .'' Pronounce the following 
words, — gybe, gypsum, nys. 

Writing. 

There are various modes of teaching waiting, between 
which there is probably little matter for choice. We 
shall present one, for the convenience of the teacher, 
without insisting that it is the best ; though we know it will 
make good writers, if properly taught, at the proper time. 

Every child should be shown how to hold and move 
his pencil, and how to sit at his desk, while writing, as 
soon as he enters school. The body should have a reg- 
ular slope, from the seat to the crown of the head ; no 
bend. The seat should be so far back, as to allow of 
this position. The left arm should rest on the desk. 
The right should also rest on a point a httle below the 
elbow, the little finger slightly touching the desk, but not 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 131 

pressing on it. The pen and pencil should lie on the 
second finger, and be held, not too firmly, by that finger 
and the thumb. The forefinger should rest on the pen 
or pencil, to keep it steady. The two fingers should be 
extended their full length ; the thumb a little bent. The 
fingers and thumb should be kept steadily in that position, 
the motions being all made with the forearm. The down- 
ward motions should all be parallel. One of the greatest 
faults in writing is the carrying the downward motions 
in difl^erent directions. The ends of the r, o, v, and w, 
should not descend, lest they degenerate, as they are very 
apt to do, with rapid writers, into n, «, and u. For the 
first week or two, the teacher, standing or sitting where 
he can see all the writers, should keep a constant eye 
upon them, to see that all the positions and movements 
are steadily kept. If this is done, those of the class, who 
have acquired no bad habits from previous use of the pen 
or pencil, will soon write well. 

The first beauty in writing is legibility. Every thing 
should give way to this. Flourishes may be useful, in 
giving freedom of hand, but they should be practised by 
themselves, and never introduced into writing, least of all 
when writing a signature. The plainer the writing, the 
more difficult to counterfeit it. Besides, if the name be 
illegible, we have no clue wherewith to decipher it. For 
other words, we have the context. In proper names, 
we have nothing. A merchant in Boston lately returned 
to the post-office a letter, containing an order for goods. 
The signature was so elegantly written, as to be quite 
illegible. The same remark applies to figures. If each 
character is not plain, we have no means of ascertaining 
the amount. Hence, it should be considered a rule, from 
which not the slightest deviation should be allowed, that 
figures and proper names must be written plain. 

The second beauty, in writing, is the getting as much 
within a small compass, as comports with legibility. No 
one can read with ease, unless his eye can comprehend 
the longest word, or several short ones, at a glance. 
Therefore, although it may be permissible to write loose- 
ly until the pupil can write fluently, he should begin to 
draw together his letters as soon as possible. 



132 THE teacher's manual. 

The pupil should not be made to write too slow. It is 
easier to write moderately fast : and it is desirable to write 
a rapid hand as soon as possible. Care should be taken, 
however, not to run into extremes in this point. In- 
deed, if the pupil is never allowed to contract bad hab- 
its as to sitting, and as to holding and moving the pen, 
there is no fear but what he will soon be a rapid writer. 
But almost every thing depends on commencing right. 

Draining. 

Drawing should be taught simultaneously with writing ; 
that is, as soon as the pupil can hold a pencil. It should 
be practised, at first, on the slate, on which the very 
youngest child may be usefully employed, in forming 
vertical, horizontal, and oblique lines, triangles, squares, 
rectangles, &c. Then might follow the division of these 
lines, by the eye, into two, three, four, five, six, &c., 
parts. The pencil should be held in the same manner 
as the pen. While the pupils use slate-pencils, they 
should have quills or tin tubes, as holders, and their 
pencils should be sharp enough to make fine lines. 

As soon as the child can draw straight lines, join them 
neatly together, and divide them, by the eye, into any 
given number of equal parts, he should commence draw- 
ing natural objects from some book. In ' Parley's Maga- 
zine,' vols. vi. and vii., will be found excellent directions, 
and a great variety of suitable objects. By the use of 
these, the teacher may instruct the young pupils, though 
she herself have no practical knowledge of the subject. 
But, as it is very desirable she should possess the practi- 
cal, as well as theoretical, knowledge, she ought to teach 
herself, at the same time she is giving lessons to others. 

The great object, however, should be, to enable the 
pupils to draw from Nature ; and the following will prob- 
ably be found one of the easiest modes of commencing 
such a practice. Let the pupil be seated at a table, di- 
rectly before a window commanding a prospect of some 
suitable objects for drawing, such as a house or barn, 
with trees, fences, &c. The seat should be at such a 
distance from the window, that a sufficient number of 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 133 

objects to form a picture, may be seen through one pane, 
the sky filling one third or one half of it. The pupil 
should now be told to consider the pane as a picture, 
placed before him to copy ; and let him use his best en- 
deavors, to make a correct transcript of it on his slate or 
paper. At first, it would very much facihtate his oper- 
ations, if three, four, or five threads were fastened hori- 
zontally, and as many vertically, across the pane, at 
equal distances, thus dividing it into nine, sixteen, or 
twenty-five squares, or rectangles. His slate or paper 
should be ruled with lines, representing that part of the 
sash around the pane. The first time he attempts such a 
drawing, perhaps it would be well to divide his slate or 
paper into squares, or rectangles, corresponding to those 
of the pane. When every suitable object, that can con- 
veniently be seen from the windows, has been copied, his 
table can be placed in the fields, and a small frame placed 
on it, to represent the pane. All such artificial aid 
should, however, soon be laid aside, and the pupil ac- 
customed to rely on his eye alone, without other assist- 
ance than a piece of pasteboard on his hat or his knee. 
The chief difficulty, in drawing from Nature, lies in the 
fact, that we see things neither in their true situation, nor 
form, nor proportionate size. The appearance of the 
landscape is chiefly the work of our own imagination. 
Take, for instance, the size of an object. If we look at 
a house, about half a mile off, and when we turn away, 
some one ask, how big it appeared to us, compared to 
some object in the room, the answer will be very wide, 
indeed, of the truth. If again, we were asked, " Did the 
house appear as large as your thumb nail, held at arm's 
length ?" we should be apt to laugh, heartily, at the ab- 
surdity of the question ; and yet, in fact, it would fall short 
of the reahty ; for, if the thumb were held in that position, 
and so as to appear at the side of a moderate-sized house, 
we should find that, in reality, the nail appeared much 
the largest. As another instance, take the form of an 
object. The appearance which a cylinder really pre- 
sents to us, is that of a plane rectangle ; and the reason 
why it appears to us a cyhnder, is our knoioledge^ acquir- 
12 



134 THE teacher's manual. 

ed by the sense of feeling, that all apparent rectangles, 
shaded in that peculiar manner, are, in fact, cylinders. 
These facts should be pointed out to the pupil ; and he 
should be told, that, in order to draw correctly, he must 
accustom his eye to see things as they are presented to 
it by Nature ; that is, as the infant sees them. 

When the child is expert in linear drawing, he may be 
taught shading ; but perhaps this is too much to ask from 
the primary school, and may be postponed till he enters 
the central school. The primary teacher ought, howev- 
er, by all means, to point out to her pupils the effects 
of shade in Nature, directing their attention, with that 
view, to stove-pipes, the outside of houses, trees, woods, 
clouds, &c. 

If possible, this study should be carried forward in the 
central school, either by a regular drawing-master, or by 
the aid of books. But, even if it should not, the pupils 
will never regret the time spent in its practice in the pri- 
mary school. Linear drawing is indispensable to many 
professions and trades, and highly useful in many others ; 
and it would, if generally disseminated, be a powerful 
means of increasing the innocent enjoyments, good feel- 
ings, and good taste, of a community. As one of the 
means of preserving good discipline in a young family, 
it is invaluable. All children have more or less taste for 
it ; and, if encouraged by a few instructions in school, it 
would provide interesting and quiet occupation for young 
children, in bad weather, in the evening, and at other 
seasons, whereby the idleness, mischief, and unseasonable 
noise and rudeness, which create so many bad feelings in 
famiHes, might be much abated. In addition to its direct 
advantages, drawing is indirectly useful, by the disciphne 
it gives to the eye, hand, powers of observation, mem- 
ory, invention, and taste, and, in some degree, to the 
other mental faculties. 

Elocution and Composition. 

These branches of education are classed together, on 
account of their intimate connexion, as school studies, as 
well as by Nature. In both, the principal requisite is a 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 135 

mind well stored with ideas, not in a confused mass, but 
arranged in symmetry and order. Their difference lies, 
chiefly, in their manner of expression ; the one being 
oral, the other by writing. 

These important studies have hitherto been sadly neg- 
lected in our schools. They have, it is true, received 
some attention in our higher seminaries ; but, as has al- 
ready been remarked of some other studies, this attention 
comes at too late a period. Superior minds, undoubted- 
ly, will force their way, in spite of every impediment ; 
but, of the great mass, who delay the cultivation of the 
talent of expressing their thoughts with effect, either by 
the tongue or the pen, till after the age of twelve or four- 
teen, few, very few, indeed, will ever attain proficiency. 
Is this a desirable state of things ? In every country, 
the power of expressing one's-self, with force and per- 
spicuity, ought to be considered as an essential in a lib- 
eral education. Without it, a man is a mere cipher in 
society. But, in our country, we should look for more 
than this. For every man ought to prepare himself for 
taking a part in her public business. Even should he 
never aspire to a seat in her State or National councils, 
he owes it as a duty to himself and to his country, to let 
any talent he may possess appear, at least, in her prima- 
ry assemblies. Yet, for want of the general cultivation 
of this talent, the whole legislative business of the coun- 
try is abandoned to those whose pursuits make them talk- 
ers by profession ; and who, in the habit of arguing, with 
equal interest, upon the wrong as upon the right side, lose 
the nice discrimination which ought to be the attribute 
of the statesman. This is not meant as any disparage- 
ment to the conduct of the profession. It would be a 
monstrous evil, were lawyers to assume a right to decide 
upon the justice of a cause before a hearing, and to refuse 
to undertake the defence of those whom they did not think 
were in the right. No ! this is the prerogative of the 
judge and jury ; and a lawyer is bound to present his 
client's cause in as fair a light as the nature of things 
will allow. But, independent of the evil habit of long 
talking, the very fact, that it is the duty of their profes- 



136 

sion to seek for arguments on one side only, and that 
not always the strongest, disqualifies them, in a consider- 
able degree, from being enlightened legislators. Their 
technical knowledge is, undoubtedly, indispensable in the 
halls of legislation, and will always secure them a strong 
influence there ; but it will be a manifest improvement, 
when the profession shall be confined to a due and proper 
share in the representation of the country. If, then, we 
would shorten the extravagant length of our legislative 
debates ; if we would enable every man, who has an 
original or useful thought, to bring it forward for the ben- 
efit of his country, with brevity, force, and perspicuity, 
let us use our best endeavors to spread these important 
gifts, generally, through the community ; and, to effect 
this, they must be cultivated in our primary schools. 

The process of teaching elocution and composition 
may be commenced as follows : Let the teacher write a 
noun on the blackboard, say, for instance, the word man ; 
and let every child in school be directed to form a sen- 
tence with it, or, at least, to say something about it, tell- 
ing them to say something different every time, and not 
to use the words or ideas of those who precede them 
in the exercise. Choose two or three of the brightest- 
looking children to commence ; but, if all seem at a loss, 
the teacher may give a (ew examples, thus : The larger 
children may make sentences like these, — I saw a man, 
dressed in black, walk past the schoolhouse, yesterday ; 
the man that lives in the brick house is very sick. The 
smaller children can say, — A tall man ; a poor man ; a 
black man ; a good man^ &c. This exercise should be 
pursued every day, taking care, not to repeat the same 
word for the subject, and carrying the whole school steadi- 
ly forward, by slow degrees, but always forward, from 
simple to compound, from shorter to longer sentences. 
When the pupils have become familiar with exercises on 
nouns, adjectives may be chosen as subjects, such as 
good, bad, industrious, lazy, &c. These will be found 
to require more thought to produce a variety ; and it may 
be found necessary to give out two or three in one exer- 
cise. Sentences formed from pronouns, verbs, adverbs, 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 137 

&.C.5 may follow. Meanwhile, the teacher should care- 
fully study Town's ' Analysis of Derivative Words,' and 
become as familiar as possible with its principles, pre- 
paratory to introducing it into school. Parker's ' Progres- 
sive Exercises in English Composition' should also be 
examined with the same view. A copy of each of these 
books should be procured by the committee, for the use of 
the school ; and, when the teacher has sufficiently studied 
them, a part of both may be written on the blackboard, 
and commented on every day, and exercises given out for 
the students. But the teacher should not rely altogether 
on printed books. The book of Nature is always open, 
and the pupils should be accustomed to draw, liberally, 
from that inexhaustible source. Let their powers of de- 
scription be exerted on the objects around. Let them be 
led to view Nature with the eye of a poet and a painter. 
Let them be encouraged to think and talk of the grandeur 
of the heavens, now illumined by the dazzling beams of the 
King of Day, now by the milder rays of the Queen of 
Night, surrounded by her thousand sparkhng attendants ; 
at one time dazzling us by the splendid hues of morning 
and evening ; at another, delighting us with the mildness 
of the azure, or the ever-changing hues and forms of the 
clouds in a Summer's day. Point out to them the ever- 
varying, ever-beautiful foliage of the forest, whether arising 
from the mild zephyrs of Spring, the fervid heats of Sum- 
mer, the cool evenings of Autumn, or the biting frosts of 
Winter. And direct the attention to the sublimity of our 
mountain scenery, and the softer beauty of the plain, 
checkered by the hand of industry, and fertilized by the 
meandering river. 

It is scarcely necessary to observe, that all these exer- 
cises in elocution will be performed with equal ease and 
grace, because they will be without effort, and because 
they will have been acquired almost unconsciously. Paint 
to yourself our little pupils, collected around their teach- 
er, expressing their simple thoughts in earnest but correct 
language, and compare this scene with that of a boy of 
fourteen or sixteen, called on to stand, for the first time, on 
the floor, to recite some piece, on which he has labored 
12* 



138 

for days or weeks. Can there be a greater contrast, of 
stiffness and ease, of awkwardness and grace ? 

Occasional walks with the teacher will be useful in fur- 
nishing topics. Sometimes the woods may be visited, 
and the attention of the school directed to the sweet mu- 
sic and gay plumage of the feathered race, to the beauti- 
ful vistas formed by the trees, the graceful arching of the 
tops, waving in the breeze ; 

*' While, beneath, 
The checkered earth seems restless, as a flood 
Brush'd by the wind." 

At Other times, the walk may lie along the course of 
the brook or river, where the willow dips its pendant 
boughs, and the rapid trout glides swiftly. Or it may rise 
the hill, to survey the beauties of an extended prospect. 

These walks should also be improved by the collection 
of botanical and mineralogical specimens, of which more 
in its proper place. 

The mill, the manufactory, and the shop of the mechan- 
ic, will also form profitable places of occasional resort ; 
but leave should always be previously obtained for such 
visits, and the assistance of the proprietor requested, to 
explain the various machinery and operations. Such 
walks will form an abundant resource for topics, both of 
discourse and composition. 

It is important, that all expressions indicating gloom 
and discontent should be discouraged, and an opposite 
spirit developed and fostered. The terms gloomy weath- 
er^ disagreeable season of. the year, &c., should be shown 
to be inappropriate, ungrateful, and productive of discon- 
tent and misery. It should be explained to the pupils, 
that, to the eye of intelligence, the bounty and goodness of 
God is alike conspicuous, in all seasons, and in all places ; 
in the rain, as well as in the sunshine ; in the storm, as 
well as in the calm. It has been well observed, that 
"It is the mind that maketh well or ill. The elements 
of pain and pleasure are every where. A contented dis- 
position can derive pleasure from almost every thing ; a 
discontented temper from nothing ; but is always busy in 
detecting deficiences,and feeding dissatisfaction with com- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 139 

parisons. The one gathers all the flowers, the other, all 
the nettles, in his path. The one reahzes all the pleas- 
ure of the present good, the other converts it into pain, by 
pining after something better, which is only better because 
it is not present, and which, if it were present, would not 
be enjoyed." The celebrated Boz observes, that '' Men 
who look on Nature and their fellow-men, and cry that all 
is dark and gloomy, are in the right ; but the sombre colors 
are reflected from their own jaundiced eyes and hearts. 
The real hues are delicate, and require a clearer vision." 

There is another class of these grumblers, who make 
themselves and all around them wretched, because they 
conceive that gloom renders them infere^im^. All such 
ought to be laughed out of their folly, as soon as it appears. 

The little pupils should be encouraged, whenever they 
differ in opinion from any sentiment advanced, to give 
the reasons for their dissent, with politeness, but with per- 
fect freedom. It is not thought advisable, however, to 
recommend the institution of debates, with the previous 
appointment of individuals to different sides. Such ex- 
ercises are apt to degenerate into a struggle for victory, 
rather than a search for truth. Our youth should be 
educated for judges, not for advocates. They ought 
distinctly to understand, that almost every sentiment and 
opinion has, at least, two sides from which it may be 
viewed ; that the one is generally good, till the other has 
been heard ; and that it is alike their duty and interest, to 
examine subjects /or themselves in every point of view. 

What has as yet been advanced, on this subject, may 
be thought, perhaps, chiefly to relate to elocution ; but the 
fact is, that nearly all of it applies equally to composition. 
What has been spoken may also be written ; and there 
will be little or no difficulty, if we commence at the prop- 
er time and place. . Nearly all the difficulties in educa- 
tion arise from commencing in the middle, or at the wroiig 
end. As soon, then, as the child can form and join his 
letters, let him commence the practice of composition, 
and follow it up steadily as long as he remains in school. 
Few are aware how improvable is the faculty of ex- 
pressing thoughts upon paper. The gigantic increase 



140 

of the muscles in a blacksmith's arm, from his wielding 
the hammer so frequently ; the proverbial strength of the 
memory, by exercise ; or the miraculous sleight which 
the juggler acquires, by practice, with his cup and balls ; 
is not more certain, than that he, who daily habituates 
himself to writing down his ideas with what ease, accura- 
cy, and elegance, he can, will find his improvement ad- 
vance, with hardly any assignable limit. Nor will his 
style, only, improve. It is a hackneyed truth, that, " in 
learning to ivrite with accuracy and precision, we learn to 
think with accuracy and precision." Besides this, the 
store of thought is, in a twofold way, enlarged. By the 
action of the mind, in turning over, analyzing, and com- 
paring, its ideas, they are incalculably multiplied. And 
the researches, prompted by the desire to write under- 
standingly upon each subject, are constantly widening 
and deepening the bounds of knowledge. Thus, wheth- 
er a person wishes to enrich and invigorate his own mind, 
or to act whh power on the minds of others, we say to 
him. Write ! 

Elocution and composition have an intimate connexion 
and mutual bearing on each other. It has been said, 
that " reading makes a full man ; speaking, a ready man ; 
and writing, an exact man." All are necessary to con- 
stitute the well-educated man. 

Before concluding this subject, it should be mentioned, 
that the inditing of letters to parents, teachers, brothers 
and sisters, and companions, should be added to the nu- 
merous topics for composition already mentioned. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 

Arithmetic. 

The error, that has been so repeatedly noticed, again 
appears here. The study is commenced too late. Very 
young children can readily understand, not only concrete, 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 141 

but abstract, numbers. Indeed, it will be found, that, 
within certain Hmits, the effort is much less in young than 
in older children ; that is, of three boys of equal capaci- 
ty, who know little or nothing of numbers, one of six, the 
others of eight and ten, years of age, their progress will 
be more nearly inversely, than directly, as their respect- 
ive ages. In our improved schools, then, let mental 
arithmetic be commenced simultaneously with reading, 
which last, indeed, is an object of much more difficult at- 
tainment than the first. 

Mental Arithmetic. 

For beginners, a numeral frame should be procured, 
but of a different kind from the one manufactured for 
schools in Boston. This latter is a frame with twelve 
wires passing across, on each of which are twelve balls, 
painted, alternately, of two different colors. Such a 
frame, as it does not correspond with our decimal system 
of arithmetic, can be but of little use. For our purpose, 
an old slate frame will answer very w^ell. The vertical 
sides should be pierced for eleven wires, ten of which 
should be at equal distances, the eleventh further apart, — 
say double the distance. On each wire should be placed 
ten beads, half of one color and half of another, — say 
blue and yellow, — arranged as follows : three yellow, two 
blue, two yellow, three blue. Thus we shall have one 
hundred beads, on ten wires, to represent units, and ten, 
on the eleventh, to represent hundreds ; and so arranged, 
by twos, threes, fives, and tens, that any number, not 
exceeding one thousand, can be read off as easily as by 
the use of ciphers. 

Let us now take a class, who cannot count. The 
teacher, holding the frame so that the beads are all on 
one side, and passing one of those on the upper wire 
across to the opposite side, says, " There is one bead. 
Repeat, after me, one bead ; (passing another across,) 
two beads ;" &c., till all the ten are passed across, and 
named. Then repeat the operation, omitting the word 
bead, till all can readily count from one to ten. This is 
enough for the first lesson. The second lesson should 



142 

be a repetition of the first, with this addition : When the 
three yellow beads are passed across, say, " Now, try to 
recollect three." Then pass three across on another wire, 
and ask, how many there are. If they do not know, 
count the first three again, and repeat, on different wires, 
till they know three, at a glance. In like manner, make 
them familiar with four, five, six, seven ; and for eight, 
nine, ten, direct their attention to the other side, as eight 
on one side may be known by two on the other ; nine, 
by one, and ten, by none. This may probably be too 
much for the second lesson. The teacher must take care 
not to fatigue the little pupils, by too long exertion. 

As soon as the class has become familiar with the first 
ten numbers, and able to name them on the frame, at a 
glance, the difficulty is pretty much over ; as the others 
are chiefly a repetition of the first ten. In teaching them 
we should, at first, call them by their original names, 
before we introduce the class to their common^ or contrac- 
ted names, as this will explain the system of numbers, 
which will tend to simplify every part of arithmetic. The 
class, then, should be told, that ten has three different 
names ; namely, 

1. One ten, standing by itself, is called, . . ten. 

2. One ten, joined to another number, . . teen. 

3. More than one ten, .... . . ty. 

Applying this to the frame, pass the ten beads on the 

first wire across, and then say, ''There is ien." Now, 
one bead across from the second wire, " There is one- 
teen ; another will make twoteen ; three, threeteen ; four, 
fourteen ;" &c., to nineteen ; and, passing the last one 
across, " Now we have tivoty.''^ Then, by passing the 
beads of the third wire singly across, we shall have, twoty- 
one^twoty-twOj &c., to threety ; and, continuing the oper- 
ation, fourty^ fi^^iy-) sixty ^ &c., to ninety-nine^ the last 
bead gives tenty^ or a hundred. We have seen classes, 
who have gone, at once, from ten to one hundred ; and, 
at the next lesson, could name any number required, on 
the frame, not exceeding one hundred ; and, by telling 
them that each bead on the eleventh wire stood for one 
hundred, their knowledge extended to one thousand. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 143 

When they have become familiar with the nomencla- 
ture, which will be in three or four lessons, the abbrevi- 
ations, which are few and simple, may be explained. The 
most difficult are the two first, oneteen^ hooteen^ which 
are changed to eleven^ twelve ; the others are very sim- 
ple, namely, threeteen and threety are shortened to thirteen 
and thirty ; Jiveteen and fivety^ to fifteen and fifty ; lastly, 
twoty is twenty ; and fourty is forty. 

This explanation is principally intended for those who 
know nothing of arithmetic. But it would be profitable 
for the whole school to go over the frame once or twice, 
as there are few who have clear notions of the meaning 
of ty and teen. 

Our little pupils, having thus acquired the nomencla- 
ture of numbers, the fundamental processes of addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division, may now be com- 
menced. The first two should be taught simultaneously 
on the frame : thus, passing two beads and two beads, 
the class will see they make four ; and, if two be taken 
from four, two will remain. If this be practised a very 
few minutes every day, in a week or two the class will 
add or subtract, instantly, any two numbers, not exceed- 
ing one thousand. Multiplication and division should also 
proceed simultaneously. Thus, taking eight beads, ask, 
how many twos it contains ; and, if one of the class sep- 
arate them on the wire into twos, all will see there are 
four ; consequently, four twos make eight, and eight con- 
tains four twos. It will not be necessary to go further 
than the fifth hne in multiplication and division ; as the 
higher numbers will be more readily taught from Colburn's 
' First Lessons,' of which anon. The frame need now 
be no longer used as a regular exercise, but should al- 
ways be convenient to the teacher's desk ; as, if proper- 
ly used, it will be of much advantage to the class. 

For very small children, Fowle's ' Mental Arithmetic' 
should precede Colburn's ' Lessons ;' but those of seven 
or eight years of age may pass, at once, into Colburn. 
Of these books, there should be only one copy in school. 
Any intelligent teacher can use them, even though un- 
practised in mental arithmetic. When this is the case, 



144 

however, she should work out every question, mentally, 
along with the class. The main advantage of mental 
arithmetic is, the wonderful manner in which it disciplines 
some of the most important faculties of the mind, partic- 
ularly those of attention, abstraction, and reasoning. But 
to gain these advantages, in any considerable degree, the 
pupils should distinctly know, that the questions are nev- 
er to be repeated. They must give their ivhole attention, 
while the question is reading, and they must retain the 
whole in their minds, until they have found the answer, 
and explained the process by which it was discovered. 
The books ought to be used thus : The teacher reads, 
'' Your brother William gave you nineteen cents, your 
brother John, ten, and your cousin Mary, two. How 
many have been given to you, in all .'"' 

C. {after consideration.) Thirty-one. 

T. How do you know ? 

C Because brother William gave me nineteen, broth- 
er John, ten ; now ten and nineteen make twenty-nine ; 
and cousin Mary gave me two ; twenty- nine and two 
make thirty-one. 

T. Very well. Twelve men are to have ninety-six 
dollars for performing a piece of work. How much is 
due to each ? 

0. Eight dollars. 

T. Why ? 

C. Because, as the twelve men were to have ninety- 
six for their work, and as there are eight twelves in nine- 
ty-six, of course each man would have eight. 

I now give a question in a more advanced stage. 

T. A cistern has two cocks ; the first will fill it in 
three hours, the second in six hours ; how long would it 
take both to fill it ? 

C. Two hours. 

T. Why ? 

C. Because if the first can fill it in three hours, it will 
fill one third of it in one hour ; and if the second will fill 
it in six hours, it will fill one sixth in one hour ; but one 
third is equal to two sixths ; therefore, both will fill three 
sixths, or one half, in one hour ; or the whole, in two hours. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 145 

Some of the exercises in addition, in Colburn's * First 
Lessons,' are so easy, though not the less important, that 
there is some danger of the class allowing their minds 
to wander, and yet answering correctly. This may be 
checked, by varying the questions, as follows : Instead 
of, Nine and four ? Nineteen and four ? Twenty-nine and 
four ? Thirty-nine and four ? regularly increasing the 
number o( ty^ let them be varied, thus : Twenty-nine and 
four ? Forty-nine and four ? Thirty-nine and four ? Fif- 
ty-nine and four ? &c. 

It requires some tact, to gain the utmost advantage from 
mental arithmetic ; but it is easily acquired. The main 
point is, that the attention of the teacher be kept wide 
awake. The dull and slow must be allowed time ; the 
bright must not be suffered to monopolize the answers. 
At the same time, it will not do for the answers to be re- 
ceived, in the order in which the pupils stand in the class ; 
for, in this case, only one child would be occupied at 
once. Each pupil would attend only to his own ques- 
tion ; whereas all should be occupied, and should actu- 
ally solve every question put to the class. The best plan, 
then, is, for each to hold up a finger, when ready to an- 
swer, leaving the teacher to select whose turn it shall be. 
Thus, every one might have an equal chance. The dull 
and the bright, however, ought not to be together, but in 
different classes. In fact, it would be well to have the 
classes differently arranged, for each separate study. 
Some are bright at reading, and dull in arithmetic, and 
vice versa. To chain the dull to the bright has bad 
effects on both. 

The Pestalozzian plates, at the end of Colburn's book, 
may or may not be studied, at the option of the teacher. 
They are explained in the 'Key,' page 141. At all 
events, they should be clearly understood by the teacher. 

Abbreviations in Mental Arithmetic. — The following 
abbreviations have never before been published. They 
may probably not only be useful to the student, but lead 
to the invention of others, equally profitable. 

To multiply by 5. Take half the number, and multi- 
13 



146 THE teacher's manual. 

ply by 10. We take half, because multiplying by 10 
gives double of multiplying by 5. Thus, 5 X 64 = 
^^- X 10 = 32ty, or 320. When the number is odd, 
halving leaves a remainder of 1, which, of course, is one 
5. Thus, 73 X 5 = V- X 10 = 36ty and five, or 365. 

Let us next proceed to 15, 20, 25, 30, &c., and af- 
terwards take up the intervening numbers. 

Fifteen is 10 and half of 10 ; therefore, increasing any 
number a half, and multiplying by 10, is the same as mul- 
tiplying by 15. Thus, as 64 and half of 64 make 96, 
64 X 15 = 96ty, or 960. When the number is odd, 
proceed as above, in speaking of 5. Thus, 75 X 15 = 
112ty and five, or 1125, and the square of 15 is 22ty and 
five, or 225. 

Twenty being two tens, to multiply by 20, double the 
number, and multiply by 10. Thus, 20 X 45 = 90ty, 
or 900. 

Twenty-five is one fourth of 100 ; therefore, to mul- 
tiply by 25, take ^ of the number for hundreds : every 
unit in the remainder is one twenty-five. Thus : 

24 X 25=^X 100 = 600. 

25 X 25 = -V- X 100 = 625. 
26X25 = 2^X100 = 650. 

27 X 25 = -V- X 100 = 675, &c. 

Fifty is half of 100 ; therefore, to multiply by 50, take 
^ the number for hundreds. Thus, 24 X 50 = ^ X 100 
= 1200. 

Thirty is thrice ten ; therefore, to multiply by 30, take 
thrice the number, and multiply by 10. Thus, 24 X 30 
= 72ty, or 720. 

Let us now examine the intermediate numbers, which 
are all done on one principle. Fourteen times any num- 
ber is 15 times that number, less once the number ; and 
13 times any number is 15 times the number, less twice 
the number. Thus, 14 X 24 = 15 X 24, less once 24 ; 
and 13 X 24 = 15 X 24, less twice 24. Again, 16 X 
24 = 15 X 24, more once 24 ; and 17 X 24 = 15 X 24, 
more twice 24. Thus, by connecting two numbers less. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 147 

and two numbers more, with our 15, 20, 25, 30, &,c., 
we have all the intermediate numbers. 

Division is performed by reversing these processes ; 
that is, multiplying, where division is shown above ; and 
dividing, where multiplication is indicated. Though not 
so easy as multiplication, some practice in it will be 
useful. 

This system of abbreviations may seem obscure or dif- 
ficult, perhaps, to those who have never practised mental 
arithmetic. But nothing is hazarded in the assertion, 
that, where Colburn's Arithmetic is used, as pointed out 
above, the class will understand and apply it with ease 
and rapidity, before they have gone half through that 
work. The teacher may exemplify the abbreviations for 
himself, on the slate ; but they should be performed by 
the school, exclusively in the mind. 

It is a matter of the first importance, that the teacher 
should have a distinct idea of the objects to be gained by 
the practice of mental arithmetic ; as, otherwise, the main 
advantages that might result from it will assuredly be lost. 
Let it be constantly borne in mind, then, by the teacher, 
that the knowledge of arithmetic is not the chief benefit 
to be derived from it, but one of secondary importance. 
It is the mental discipline, the- power of abstraction, the 
habit of attention and of reasoning which it developes, 
that constitutes its chief value. But all these advantages 
are lost, if the child is allowed to study the book ; more 
especially by working out the questions on the slate. 
They can only be completely attained, by calling on the 
class to solve each question mentally, merely from hear- 
ing it once read, and then to give a clear account of his 
mental operations. And, so beautifully are the questions 
arranged, so completely does the knowledge gained in 
each question, come into requisition in those that follow, 
that, if the plan of study be commenced right, and strictly 
followed, the most intricate and difficult questions will 
give no trouble to the class. 

It may, perhaps, be incredible to some, but it is not 
the less true, that Colburn's book may be gone through, 
and correct notions be attained of the principles of arith- 



148 

metic, without the knowledge of a single character. A 
child, who can neither write nor read, who has never even 
seen a figure, will probably acquire ihis knowledge more 
readily than those who fully understand them. Notwith- 
standing this, however, as the knowledge of figures is an 
indispensable part of education, and as its acquisition is 
much the easiest in early youth, as soon as a child can 
hold his pencil correctly, and can write the ten charac- 
ters, he should proceed to the practice of 

Written .Arithmetic. 

JSTotation. — The method of expressing large numbers 
and of performing large operations, by words, is so incon- 
venient and tedious, that, from the earhest periods known, 
characters have been invented to express them more con- 
cisely. Almost every ancient nation had a method pe- 
culiar to itself ; only three of which, however, are neces- 
sary to be known by the American student. 

The first is the Greek mode, in which the first nine 
letters of their alphabet represented the numbers from 1 
to 9, and the next nine letters represented the tens from 
1 to 9 ; that is, 10, 20, &c., to 90. The hundreds they 
represented by the other letters, supplying what were 
wanting by other marks, or characters ; and in this order 
they proceeded, using the same letters, again, with differ- 
ent marks, to express thousands, tens of thousands, &c. 
This method of notation is now only used in Greek books, 
to denote the numbers of chapters, sections', &c. 

The second is the Roman method, which is now used 
by all the European nations, and their American descen- 
dants, for distinguishing dates, chapters, and sections of 
books, &c. This, like the Greek, is derived from the 
alphabet, but in a different order. The origin of the 
Roman numerals is sufficiently evident ; and, as a know- 
ledge of this origin is not only an aid to its acquisition, 
but will enable the student to recall it to mind when for- 
gotten, an explanation of it will not be considered out of 
place here. 

The ten fingers present so obvious and convenient a 
mode of numeration, that every tribe and people, hitherto 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 149 

known, except the Chinese, and an obscure tribe men- 
tioned by Aristotle, have had recourse to them. The 
Romans not only used the digits, or fingers, as the foun- 
dation of their method of computing, but also derived 
from them several of their characters. Thus, a finger, 
represented by I, stood for one ; two, three, and four 
fingers, represented by II, III, and IIII, stood for two, 
three, and four. By holding up the hand, with all the 
five fingers extended, a tolerably correct representation 
of the letter V will appear, formed by the thumb and in- 
dex finger. In like manner, VI is one hand and a finger 
of the other ; VII, a hand and two fingers, &c. ; while 
X represents both hands, considered as two Vs, joined 
by their apices ; or it may be formed, by holding up both 
hands, one thumb resting across the other. C and M, 
being the initial letters of centum and mille, the Latin 
words for 100 and 1000, stood for those numbers. L 
and D, representing half of C and M,* stand for their 
halves, 50 and 500. This was undoubtedly the arrange- 
ment of the first Roman numerals ; but, as the eye does 
not readily distinguish more than three similar characters, 
at a glance, a plan was adopted, to prevent the recurrence 
of more than three, by making a smaller number, when 
placed before a larger, to be subtracted in place of added. 
Thus, in place of II II, we have IV = 5 less 1 ; for 
Villi = 5 + 4 = 9, we have IX = 10 — 1 = 9 ; for 
XXXX = 4 tens, we have XL = 50— 10 ; for LXXXX 
= 50 + 40 = 90, we have XC = 100—10 = 90. 

When this form of numeration has been explained to 
a class, they ought to be questioned on the blackboard, 
till the subject has become perfectly familiar. A some- 
what complicated question is subjoined, as a specimen. 

T. What number is MDCCCXLIV ? 

C. M is 1000; D, 500; three Cs, 300; together 
1800; X, 10, to be taken from L, 50, leaves 40 ; I, 1, 
from V, 5, leaves 4 : altogether, 1844. 

T. What does the I represent ? 

C. A finger. 

* The C was originally written, C. lialf of which is L ; half the 
M, A, only wants a little rounding, to tfansrorria it into D. 

13* 



150 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

T, TheV? 

C. A hand. 

T. TheX? 

C. Two hands. 

T. The C } the L ? the M } the D ? 

The third system of characters representing numbers, 
is that which is commonly called the Arabic, though now 
generally allowed to be of Indian origin. It was intro- 
duced into Europe about A. D. 1130. This is so very 
much superior to all others, that it is hardly credible that* 
our long and complicated arithmetical operations could 
have been performed before it came into use. The char- 
acters in this system indicating numbers, (commonly call- 
ed the significant figures.,) are only nine. They have 
most probably received their origin, also, from the fingers, 
but in a different manner from the Roman numerals ; 
some of the marks consisting of vertical, others of hori- 
zontal lines. The following are supposed to be the ori- 
ginal forms of the characters : 

123456789 

I = = n5BgB^ 

Thus, 1 is represented by a vertical line, as in the Ro- 
man system ; 2, by two horizontal ones ; 3, by three do. ; 
4, by a square, or two vertical and two horizontal lines ; 6, 
by three horizontal and two vertical ; 6, three horizontal 
and three vertical ; 8, (two fours,) two squares ; 7, two 
squares, less one vertical ; lastly, 9, evidently borrowed 
from the Greek 9, (^, theta.) The 7 also is, by some, 
supposed to be borrowed from the Greek ^, (zeta^) to 
which it bears a considerable resemblance. All the char- 
acters have been rounded to their present form, by rapid- 
ity in writing. 

These nine characters have each two values, viz., their 
simple value, as one, two, three, &c., and their local 
value, which depends on their distance from the place of 
units, which is always the first on the right hand, unless 
Otherwise indicated by a mark, which shall be explained 
presently. Thus, in the following number, 6666 ^ we 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 161 

have six, four times repeated ; but every time the char- 
acter represents a different value, the first on the right 
hand representing the units, (or ones,) and, therefore, 
simply six ; the second, 6 ty, or lens ; the third, 6 tens 
of tens, or hundreds ; the fourth, 6 tens of tens of tens, 
or thousands ; and, if there were more, they would still 
go on, increasing tenfold, to infinity. Thus we perceive, 
that the fundamental law of the Arabic system is, that a 
removal of a figure one place towards the left increases 
its value, tenfold ; and, on the contrary, its removal tow- 
ards the right decreases it, tenfold. 

In addition to the nine characters mentioned above, 
there is one which does not consist of lines, like the sig- 
nificant figures, but, on the contrary, is entirely round, 
to express that it has in itself no value, its sole use being 
to occupy the place of some denomination, which may be 
wanting, and which, therefore, instead of its customary 
name of cipher, may be appropriately termed figure of 
place. Thus, to represent six hundred and five, (605,) 
it is necessary to have a character that has no value, in 
itself, to stand in the place of tens ; otherwise, the 6 
would be 6 tens or ty, in place of 6 hundred. 

Whenever the figures representing any number con- 
sist of more than four, they should be divided, by com- 
mas, into series of threes, the unit being counted as the 
first, whether they extend to the right or left of it. 

Every fig^ure, besides its simple name, (one, two, three, 
&c.,) has two other names, which may be hkened to the 
Christian and family names of children, as exempHfied in 
the following table : 

BiUions. Millions. Thousands. Units. 



. 


in 


r 


05 


CO 


-73 


xn 


"h 


^ 


xh 


to 


rj 


■^ 


c 




• -H 


C 


a 




c 


a 




/jj 


a 


3 


0) 


a 


3 


cu 


s 


3 


0) 


a 


H 


D 


w 


Eh 


P 


w 


Eh 


p 


w 


H 


P 


3 


6, 


8 


4 


7, 


2 





6, 





3 


2 


B 
o 


o 

1-5 


W 


a 

o 


c 
o 

1-5 


s 


s 

o 


-> 


w 


S 
o 

Eh 





Brown. Smith. Graham. Jones. 



152 

Carrying out our simile, we may say, that, in every 
family, excepting in the one on the exireme left, there 
mast always be three chairs for the boys, none of which 
must ever be empty ; for, if any boy be absent, a block 
(cipher, or figure of place, 0) must occupy his chair, till 
he returns. For the sake of brevity, we never name 
any of the Johns, nor the family name of Jones. For 
instance, instead of saying John Brown, John Smith, 
&c., we merely say Brown, Smith, &c., and Bill Jones 
and Tom Jones are merely called Bill and Tom. Ap- 
plying this to the real local names of the figures, we never 
make use of the word units ^ at all. Whenever either or 
both local names are wanting, units is always understood. 
For instance, when we say, two, we mean two units of 
units, and when we say six thousand, we mean, six units 
of thousands. Let, now, a series of figures be written on 
the blackboard ; let one of the class divide them into 
series of threes, and exercise the class in naming them, 
irregularly, till all become quite familiar with the subject. 
Again, write several figures of the same kind, thus : 

6 5 4 3 2 1 
4 4 4 4 4 4, 

and ask, how many times is the second 4 greater than the 
first ? how many times is the third greater than the first ? 
the fourth, than the first ? the fourth, than the second ? the 
fourth, than the third ? &c. Again, how many times is 
the first contained in the second ? the first in the third ? 
the second in the sixth ? &c. 

T. What is the name of the first series of threes ? 

C. Units. 

T. The third.? 

C. Millions. 

T. The second ? the fourth ? &c. 

T. Repeat the three names of the first series. 

C. Units, tens, hundreds. 

T. Repeat the three names of the third series. Are 
they the same in every series } 

T. What name is never used ? 

C. Units. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 153 

Again, write 

4 6 

T. How much is the 4 ? the 6 ? What is the use of 
the figures of place ? 

C To show the place of the 4 and the 6. 

T. If I remove the 6, will the value of the 4 be 
changed ? Will the value of the 6 be changed, if I re- 
move the 4 ? Why not ? 

C. Because, as we name from the right, the 6 will still 
stand in the place of tens of units, whatever change we 
make in the figures on its left. 

T. If I place a 6 on the right of the sum, thus, 
40606, are the other 6 and 4 changed, and how ? 

T. Fifty-two millions, six thousand, and twenty. How 
many figures are necessary to represent this sum ? How 
many of them are significant figures ? 

Questions similar to the above, having been repeated, 
till the notation of integers has become quite familiar to 
the class, the teacher may turn to the article Arithmetic^ 
in Chap. V. of Part I., of this book, where directions are 
given, how to explain and comment on notation of deci- 
mals. The class will then take their books and slates, 
and proceed to express, in figures, numbers given in 
words, using all the examples given in the books of arith- 
metic, both in integers and decimals. Should the class 
not be familiar with the practice of rendering words into 
figures, after they have exhausted all the questions in 
their book of arithmetic, the teacher should make new 
ones, or procure them from some other book. The pu- 
pils can never be expert in arithmetic, till this subject is 
perfectly understood. 

Addition. — This rule is perhaps more used in busi- 
ness than any other in arithmetic. The student, before 
he leaves it, should be able to add long sums, rapidly and 
correctly, such as are found in merchants' books, &c. If 
he has practised mental arithmetic, long sums may be giv- 
en him at once ; if not, he may commence with shorter 
ones, and gradually lengthen them. As soon as he ac- 
quires a httle proficiency, he should begin to add two or 



154 THE teacher's manual. 

three figures at once, preparatory to which, he may be 
exercised, as follows : 

T. How many does 6 want to make up 10 ? 

C. Four. 

T. How many does 4 ? 7 ? 9 ? &c. 

T. How many does 6, 7, 4, &c., want, to make 11 ? 

T. How many do the same numbers want, to make 
12? 

When the class can answer such questions instantly, 
their attention should be directed to the fact, that adding 
10 to a number does not change its units, that adding 11 
or 12 increases the units by 1 or 2, and that adding 8 or 
9 decreases them 2 or 1 . 

T. What effect has adding 8 on the units ? 

T. What effect has adding 12, 10, 11, 9 .? 

A little practice on the following, and a few similar 
sums, will so accustom the class to add two or three 
figures, at once, as to make it nearly as easy as adding a 
single figure at a time. 



1st. 


2d. 


3cl. 


a h c 


de f 


g h i 


1 3 5 


2 1 8 


342 


987 


32 3 


4 3 3 


7 74 


5 8 1 


7 7 4 


34 8 


37 2 


6 6 1 


4 5 5 


4 34 


8 1 2 


6 67 


3 1 6 


5 2 3 


22 3 


248 


284 


899 


743 


595 


584 


1 3 1 


37 6 


5 38 


4 5 4 


9 6 7 


3 7 5 


2 1 5 


74 8 


747 


45 3 


1 39 


column a. 


every two 


figures make 


> make 11 


; in c, even 


7 two make 1^ 



In the 
every two make 11 ; in c, every two make 12. In d, 
every three figures make 10 ; in e, every three make 11 ; 
in /, every three make 12. In ^, every two alternate 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 16S 

figures, viz., first and third, and second and fourth, &c., 
make 10 ; in /i, the first and fourth, second and third, 
fifth and eighth, seventh and sixth, &c., make 10; the 
column i goes on a different principle, which is, that 
whenever three figures follow, in regular order, their sum 
is equal to three times the middle one ; that is, the sum 
of 9, 8, and 7 is 3 times 8 ; 4 + 5 + 6 = 3x5; be- 
cause, if 1 be taken from the largest and added to the 
smallest, all three would be equal. Let the teacher point 
out to the school, or to a class, the different combinations 
in the columns a, 6, c, (/, &c., and then write some col- 
umns of figures, at random, and he will be surprised, how 
quickly the little pupils will catch the different combina- 
tions, and add them together. A smart child, after a 
little practice, will run his eye up a column, and tell its 
contents, almost instantaneously. 

Addition of decimals should be practised, simultaneous- 
ly with addition of integers, and the reasons for placing 
the figures explained, as given in Chap. V. Part I. The 
reason for carrying the tens should also be explained on 
the blackboard, as follows, by which it will become obvi- 
ous to sight. 

426 426 

789 789 

325 325 



20 1540 

12 

14 



1540 



Subtraction. — The only difficulty about subtraction re- 
lates to the borrowing. Some teachers fail in explaining, 
why we borrow from one figure and pay to another ; or, 
as the boys call it, borrow from Peter and pay Paul. The 
most simple mode of explanation, and perhaps the most 
simple mode of performing the operation, is as follows : 

From 46384 

Take 13946 



Leaves 32438 



156 

We cannot take 6 from 4 ; but the 84 may be consid- 
ered as 70 and 14 ; then 6 from 14 leaves 8. Now, as 
we have used one of the tens, take the 4 from the remain- 
ing 7, which leaves 3. For the same reason, we take 9 
from 13, and 3 from 5 ; one of the 6 thousands having 
been taken to make 13 hundreds. 

Multiplication. — If mental arithmetic has been prop- 
]y attended to, the student will have no occasion for the 
multiplication table. If it has not, the table ought to be 
learnt, while he is practising addition and subtraction. 
But he should not be allowed to copy it from a book. 
He should make it for himself, the teacher only showing 
him how to proceed, thus : 

2 times 1 = 3X1 = 

2 " 2= 3x2= 

2 '' 3= 3X3 = 

&c. &c. &c. &c. 

In the mathematics, nothing should be taken on trust, 
except tables of weights, measures, &c., and names of 
the characters. 

The table, or a part of it, being learnt, let questions 
be set for him, multiplying by 2, 3, 4. When he comes 
to 5, it may be abbreviated, thus : 

263584 
5 



1317920 



Namely : suppose the largest factor to be multiplied by 
10, by annexing a cipher, which, being double the amount, 
has only to be halved for the true product. 

When he comes to multiply by 9, suppose it to be 
multiplied by annexing a cipher, and then, as the largest 
factor is once too many, he has only to subtract it, name- 
ly, 5 from 0, 4 from 5, 2 from 4, &c. 

3679245 
9 



33113205 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 157 

Multiplying by 11, may be performed by addition, 
by supposing the largest factor to be repeated, one of 
them standing one figure to the left of the other. It may 
be shown on the blackboard, as No. 1, and done, after- 
wards, as No. 2, namely, by supposing the process in 
No. 1 to be before you. 

No. 1. No. 2. 

426389 426389 

11 11 



426389 4690279 
426389 



4690279 



In No. 2, the process is as follows, namely : 9 is 9 ; 
8 and 9 make 17 ; carry 1 to 3 is 4, and 8 are 12 ; &c., 
adding (after taking the first figure on the right by itself) 
each figure to the one next it to the left. 

When the multiplier is any number between 12 and 
20, the process may easily be performed at one opera- 
tion. Thus : 

No. 1. No. 2. 

3216 3216 

16 16 



19296 51456 

3216 



51456 



By examining No. 1, it will be readily perceived, that 
the three lines might have been contracted into one, by 
adding in the right-hand figure, after multiplying the first 
figure by 6. Or the rule may be expressed thus : Mul- 
tiply by the units' figure of the multiplier, continually ad- 
ding in the adjoining right-hand figure of the multiplicand. 

Multiplying by 25, may be performed by one opera- 
tion, by conceiving the largest factor to be multiplied by 
100, and then dividing by 4, 25 being J of 100. Other 
abbreviations in multiplication will be shown, connected 
with division. 

14 



158 



THE TEACHER'S MANUAL. 



Division.— The operations in division, by more than 
one figure, occupy a great deal of space, and require 
many figures. They may be much contracted, by placing 
the divisor and quotient on the same side of the dividend, 
and performing mentally the subtraction of the products, 
given by the divisor and each figure of the quotient, as 
shovv^n in the following example ; 

Dividend, or product, 17589 39, divisor, or factor. 

198 

39 451, quotient, or factor. 

Having found that 39 will go 4 times in 175, we say 4 
times 9 are 36, which, instead of setting down as usual, 
we subtract from the 5 by borrowing 4 tens, which gives 
the remainder 9 ; then 4 times 3 are 12, and 4 borrowed 
make 16, from 17 leaves 1. To the 19 we bring down 
the 8, and proceed, as before. This is the Itahan meth- 
od ; which, being quite as easy as the old formal English 
mode, is strongly recommended, by its conciseness, to 
our American youth. The divisor and quotient being 
factors of the dividend, (see Chap. V. Part I.,) affords 
another good reason for placing them together. 

Abbreviations. — When the divisor is any of the num- 
bers in the following Table of Divisors, the quotient may 
be found in two lines, at most, by short muhiplication and 
division, as in the adjoining rules. From their simplicity, 
they require neither explanation nor proof. 

To divide by 5, multiply by 2, and divide by 10 





15 




2 




30 




25 




4 




100 




35 




2 




70 




45 




2 




90 




55 




2 




110 




75 




4 




300 




125 




8 




1000 




175 




4 




700 




275 




4 




1100 




375 




8 




3000 




625 




8 




5000 




875 




8 




7000 




1125 




8 




9000 




1375 




8 




11000 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 159 

The above rules for division may be converted into 
rules for multiplication, by changing the divisors into mul- 
tipliers, and the multipliers into divisors ; thus : 

To multiply by 175, multiply by 700, and divide by 4 
" 375 " 3000 '' 8 

" 1375 '' 11000 " 8 

&c. &c. &c. 

A great many other abbreviations might be mentioned, 
here ; but, as they are much more easily understood, when 
explained on a blackboard, than when merely detailed in 
words, the subject is left to lecturers in teachers' semina- 
ries, to whose attention it is earnestly recommended. A 
year would be profitably spent, by all the pupils in the 
primary schools, in the practice of abbreviating arith- 
metic. 

In each of the processes of addition, subtraction, mul- 
tiplication, and division, questions in decimal fractions 
should be practised, simultaneously with those in integers. 
For an explanation of the manner of placing the dot, see 
Chap. V. Part I. Questions in Federal money, which 
are, in fact, questions in decimals, should also be worked 
out at the same time. 

Vulgar Fractions. — This part of arithmetic, from the 
defects of our popular school-books, is seldom clearly 
apprehended by the pupil. We shall, therefore, even at 
the risk of swelling this treatise beyond its proper limits, 
endeavor to present a clear and comprehensive view of 
the subject. 

The term vulgar, in connexion with fractions, means 
common. They are so called, because every kind of 
fraction may be expressed in that way, whereas decimal 
fractions can only express those whose unit is divided 
into 10, 100, 1000, &c., parts. The name, or denomi- 
nation of decimals, like those of integers, depends on their 
distance from the unit's place, and their value increases 
or diminishes, tenfold, by moving to the left or to the 
right. Thus, in the following number, 
ab c def 
222.222, 



160 

c d e 

the denominator of 2 is units ; that of 2, tenths ; 2, hun- 
dredths. We see, then, that, if we wished to express any- 
other kind of fraction than tenths, hundredths, &c., we 
should have to resort to some other device. The one, 
that has been adopted, is, to write their denomination^ or 
name, directly under them. Thus | is a vulgar fraction, 
whose denomination is fourths, and its number three. 
The difference, then, between a decimal and a vulgar 
fraction, is, that the denomination of the former is known 
by its distance from the unites place ; whereas the denom- 
ination of the latter is known by the figure written under 
it, hence called its denominator. As the lower figure, 
then, is called the denominator, because it expresses the 
denomination, or name, of the fraction, so the upper fig- 
ure has been called the numerator, because it expresses 
the number it contains. In the fraction |, then, 3 is the 
number it contains, or its numerator ; and 4, their value, 
or denomination, or denominator. 

The whole of the above may be concisely expressed, 
thus : The value of integers and decimal fractions is 
known from their distance from the unites place ; that of 
vulgar fractions from the figures written under them. 

To make the subject still more clear, let us examine it, 
in a different point of view. 

The word fraction implies division. It signifies, that 
one whole, (an apple, a loaf, a stick, &c.,) or unit, has 
been divided into a certain number of equal parts, which 
number is expressed by the denominator, or name of the 
fraction, while the numerator expresses the number of 
those parts which it contains. Thus, our fraction | means, 
that a unit has been divided into four parts, hence called 
fourths, three of which are expressed by the fraction. 

If we have 19 apples to divide among 4 boys, we shall 
see the use of fractions. Thus, 

4)19 

~4...3 
shows, that there will be four to each boy, and three re- 
maining. Now, if we cut each of these three into 4 parts, 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 161 

we shall have 12 fourths to divide among the 4 boys, 
consequently, 3 fourths (or |) for each. We see, then, 
that the above quotient might have been properly expres- 
sed by placing our divisor 4 under the remainder 3, thus : 
4)19 

4.3 

A vulgar fraction, then, always expresses division, the 
lower figure being the divisor, the upper, the dividend, 
and the whole, (|,) the quotient. In fact, a vulgar frac- 
tion may be expressed in three ways, thus : 

3-r-4 3:4 i 

each of which simply means, that 3 is to be divided by 4. 
Having found, then, that the numerator of a fraction is a 
dividend, and the denominator its divisor, it is plam, that 
the following fractions are all equal to one another. 



a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


/ 


i 


X 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


16 „ 
— , &c 


¥ 


¥ 


4 


~6 


6 


7 


J 


16' 



each being equal to one integer, or 1 . We see, also, 
that, if we multiply or divide both terms of the fraction, 
by the same number, we do not change its value. For, 
if we multiply both terms of the fraction a by 4, we shall 
have the fraction i, and both have the same value, name- 
ly, 1. Again : if we divide both terms of the fraction x 
by 4, we shall have the fraction c, but the value remains 
the same, namely, 1. 

Very different, however, will be the effect, if we mul- 
tiply or divide one, only, of the terms of the fraction. For 
it is easy to be seen, that, by multiplying the numerator 
of the fraction c by 2, v/e have f, (eight fourths,) the 
double of J, (four fourths ;) and by dividing the numerator 
of the same fraction c by 2, we have only f , half of f . 
It appears, then, that, if we multiply or divide the numer- 
ator by any number, we multiply or divide the fraction 
by the same number. 

But, on the contrary, by multiplying the denominator 
of i by 2, we have -f-Q, only half of f , since there are the 
same number in both, and a sixteenth is only half of an 
14* 



162 

eighth ; and, by dividing the denominator by 2, the frac- 
tion is doubled, since the number is still the same, but 
the denomination or value is doubled, a fourth being 
double of an eighth. It appears, then, that, if we multi- 
ply or divide the denominator^ we produce the contrary 
effect on the fraction. 

Collecting together these three important deductions 
from the three last paragraphs, we may form a general 
rule, by stating, that, 

By multiplying 1 the numerator, the frac- { multiphed. 

By dividing ) tion is \ divided. 

By multiplying ) the denominator, the { divided. 

By dividing ) fraction is \ multiplied. 

xJ J- -J- ( both, the fraction is unchanged. 

- From the latter part of the above table, it is evident, 
that a number, in a fractional form, may be expressed in an 
infinite variety of vi^ays. Take, for instance, J ; it may 
be multiplied without end, as follows : 

1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 

— — — — — — — , &c., 

2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 

all of which are exactly equal. Or, taking ^, 
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 

^Q 

3 6 12 24 48 96 192 384' 

all of which are also equal. The first of each of these 
series, | and J, is the most simple form of the fraction, 
and it is often important to know how to find it from any 
of the others. This is called reducing it to its lowest 
terms, and may evidently always be done by dividing it 
by such numbers as will divide both its terms. But, as 
it will frequently be difficult to find out, by mere inspec- 
tion, what divisors will answer, and as, even then, it 
would often be necessary to perform a great number of 
operations, it is important to discover a mode of finding 
out, at once, its greatest common divisor. This may al- 
ways be done, by dividing the greater of the two terms 
by the less ; then the less by the remainder of the first 
division ; then this remainder by the remainder of the 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 163 

second division; then this second remainder by the third; 
and so on, till we arrive at an exact quotient : the last di- 
visor will be the common divisor sought ; or, if it prove 
to be 1, the numbers have no common divisor. Let us 
apply this to the fraction, ^ff. 

Dividend 384 164, first divisor. 

2, quotient. 
164 56, first remainder and second divisor. 

2, quotient. 
56 52, second remainder and third divisor. 

1, quotient. 
52|4, third remainder and fourth divisor. 

Net quotient |l3, greatest common divisor. 

We can make ourselves certain, that this last divisor 
will always be the greatest common divisor, by tracing 
the above operation backwards, as follows : as 4 divides 
52, it will divide 56, which is once 4 more ; as it divides 52 
and 56, it will also divide 164, which is twice 56 and 52 ; 
and, as it divides 56 and 164, it will also divide 384, 
which consists of twice 164 and 56. It is also evident, 
that there can be no divisor greater than 4, since 4 must 
be divided by it. 

It is not always necessary to find the greatest common 
divisor, in order to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms. 
It can frequently be done by inspection, in which the pupil 
will be much aided by the following remarks : 

Every even number, — that is, every number terminated 
by 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, — is necessarily divisible by 2 ; for, in di- 
viding by 2, only 1 can remain from the tens. If nothing 
remain, the last number to be divided will be or 2, 4, 
6, 8 ; if 1 remain, the last number will be 10, 12, 14, 
16, 18, all of which are divisible by 2. 

Every number, whose two right-hand figures are divisi- 
ble by 4 or by 25, is itself divisible by 4 or by 25 ; be- 
cause both these numbers will divide one hundred without 
remainder, and, consequently, any number of hundreds. 

Every number whose three right-hand figures are divi- 



164 

sible by 8 or by 125, is itself divisible by 8 or by 125 ; 
for, as one thousand is divisible by 8 or by 125, any 
number of thousands is equally divisible. 

Every number terminated on the right by a cipher or 
by 5, is divisible by 5 ; because 10, or any number of 
10s, is divisible by 5. 

Every number, the sum of whose significant figures is 
divisible by 3 or by 9, is itself divisible by 3 or by 9. 
Thus, the number 

426,213 
is divisible by 9, because, as 100,000 consists of 99,999 
and 1, 100,000, divided by 9, will leave a remainder of 
1, and 400,000, a remainder of 4. For a like reason, 
20,000 will leave a remainder of 2, 6000, of 6, 200, of 
5, &c. ; that is, each of the figures in the above or any 
other number, if divided by 9, will leave a remainder 
equal to the simple value of the figure ; and, if the sum 
of all the remainders is divisible by 9, of course, the 
whole number is divisible by 9. But the sum of the 
above remainders is divisible by 9 ; therefore, the number 
is divisible by 9. The same demonstration will answer 
for 3. Therefore, every number^ the sum of whose sig- 
nificant figures is divisible by 9 or by 3, is itself divisible 
by 9 or by 3. And every number divisible by 9 is also 
divisible by 3, although every number divisible by 3 is 
not divisible by 9. 

Thus we can tell, almost by a glance, whether any num- 
ber can be divided by 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 25, or 125. 

T. What will be the remainder, if we divide 326 by 
25 ? Tell by inspection. 

T. What will be the remainder, if any, of dividing 
6892736 by 4 ? by 9 ? by 3 ? 

As soon as the teacher has fully explained to his class, 
on the blackboard, all that has been stated above, relative 
to fractions, and ascertained that it is thoroughly under- 
stood, the pupils should practise, on the slate, the reduc- 
tion of fractions to their lowest terms, and the teacher 
proceed as follows, on the blackboard. 

An integer, or whole number, may be represented in a 
fractional form, by placing a unit under it, as its denomi- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 165 

nator. Thus, 6 or 8 may be written f , f . An integer 
may also be represented in connexion with a fraction. 
Thus, -^^ contain the integer 2 and f more. For, as | 
are equal to 1, -^/=2 ; therefore, V- = 2f ; or this re- 
sult may be obtained, by actually performing the division 
indicated by --i-. Thus, 

8 )19 
21 

Every fraction, then, whose numerator exceeds its 
denominator, contains a whole number, which may be 
obtained by performing the division indicated. Such 
fractions are called improper fractions ; and, when the 
division is performed, (as above,) the quotient, if it con- 
sist of an integer and fraction, is called a mixed number. 
The improper fraction may evidently be reproduced, by 
multiplying the whole number by the divisor of the frac- 
tion, adding in the numerator, and replacing the denomi- 
nator of the fraction. 

[Let the pupils now practise on the slate, the reduc- 
tion of improper fractions to mixed numbers, and vice 
versa.'] 

From the table given page 162, we see that a fraction 
can be multiplied two ways : namely, by muhiplying its 
numerator, or by dividing its denominator ; and that it 
can also be divided in two ways : namely, by dividing its 
numerator, or by multiplying its denominator. Hence it 
follows, that multiplication^ alone, according as it is per- 
formed on the numerator or denominator, is sufficient, both 
for the multiplication and division of fractions. Thus, -^^ 
multiplied by 5, makes ^j, and divided by 5, makes y^. 

[Here give suitable examples, for practice, both in 
multipHcation and division of fractions by whole numbers.] 

Multiplication and division of fractions by fractions, 
may be thus exemplified : Multiply f by y. 
a a 

3 4 

b b 

First, the 4 may be considered a whole number, and 
mutiplying by it, gives ^ ; but it is not 4, but the sev- 



166 THE teacher's manual. 

enth part of 4 ; therefore, our -^ is 7 times too much. 
Accordingly, if we divide by 7, by multiplying the de- 
nominator, we shall have ^f , the true answer. Hence, 
the common rule. Multiply the numerators^ for a neic 
numerator J and the denominators^ for a new denominator. 
Divide tV by f . 

b a 

a b 

Dividing y^^bySgives 3^^; but our divisor is not 3, but the 
fifth part of 3 ; therefore, we have divided by a number 
5 times too large, and our -i^ is 5 times too small. There- 
fore, multiplying it by 5, gives M? the correct answer. 
But, if we mark our two first factors a, and our two sec- 
ond factors 6, it will appear, that, if we had reversed the 
divisor, we might have proceeded, as in multiplication. 
Hence, our common rule in division. Reverse the divisor^ 
and proceed as in multiplication. 

'These two demonstrations should be repeated on the 
blackboard, by every member of the class, till the subject 
has become perfectly familiar. 

The term fractions of fractions is sometimes given, to 
expressions like this : § of |-, which signifies the product 
of such fractions. That the word 0/, here, represents 
multiplication, appears from expressions with which all 
are familiar. For instance ; every one knows that J of 6 
is 2. Now, by multiplying, we have | = 2. Again, J of 
12 is 3 ; multiplying gives us -^-^- = 3. 

The process of multiplying fractions may frequently be 
very much abbreviated. Thus, in the question | of f of 
f of f of x^(j of J of f = how much ? 







a 




c 




b 




e 




d 


/ 


3 




4 




^ 




% 




^ 




1^ 


^ 


— 


X 


— 


X 


— 


X 




X 




X 




X — 


^ 




^ 




"^ 




^ 




10 




^ 


^ u 


a' 




b 




d 




c 








/ 


e 



10 

The whole afl^air consists merely in striking out factors 
and divisors that are equal, and may be thus demonstra- 
ted. It would be a waste of time to multiply | by 5, 
marked 6, and then to divide by 5, also marked b. The 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 167 

same reasoning allows us to strike out the two 8s, mark- 
ed/, the two 9s, marked e ; and, going on thus, we have, 
at length, nothing left but tV, which is the true answer. 
The same abbreviation may be practised in division, after 
we have reversed the divisor, and thus changed the divis- 
ion into multiplication. 

Many cases occur, in which abbreviations may be made, 
although the w|?ole number may not, at once, be struck 
out, or even though all the factors may never disappear. 



No. 1. 


No. 2. 


3 a^^ 64^ 3 

aX^6^.^ 35~35' 
b^ 


a^ bm- 3 3 
6 ^ ^ am-^ 5 "~10' 

2 



No. 1 is thus abbreviated : divide a 2 and a 8 by 2 ; 
which gives a new denominator 4 ; then strike out the 
two denominators b 4 and b 4, and the numerator 6 16. 
In No. 2, divide the two a s by 4, the two 6 s by 7, and 
the two c s by 4. 

[Here give examples, for practice, in multiplication 
and division of fractions by fractions, which should be 
examined by the teacher, to see if all the possible abbre- 
viations have been made.] 

Many young students find it difficult to comprehend, 
why multiplying by a fraction should lessen^ and dividing 
increase a number. But this difficulty may be removed, 
by explaining, that multiplying by a number is taking it as 
many times as there are units in the multiplier ; that, con- 
sequently, when we multiply by 2, the product will be 
twice the multiplicand ; when we multiply by 1, the pro- 
duct will be once the multipHcand ; and when we multi- 
fly by ^, the product will be half the multiplicand, &c. 
n division, when the divisor is 5, the dividend is five 
times the quotient ; consequently, the quotient is one fifth 
of the dividend. And if the divisor be a fraction, ^, for 
instance, the dividend can be but half the quotient, or the 
quotient double of the dividend. 

Let it be remarked here, once for all, that all the expla- 



168 THE teacher' 

nations will appear somewhat abstruse and difficult, when 
merely given in words ; but, when illustrated by numbers, 
on the blackboard, as these and what follow are intended to 
be, they will readily be understood by any intelligent child. 

Mdition and Subtraction of Vulgar Fractions. — It 
will be recollected, that, in multiplication and division of 
integers, it is not necessary that the multiplicand and mul- 
tiplier, or the divisor and dividend, should be of the same 
denomination ; for 6 thousand could be multiplied or di- 
vided by 3 units, as readily as 6 units could. The same 
remark apphes to fractions ; for | can be multipHed or 
divided by f , just as easily as by f . This, however, is 
not the case with addition and subtraction, either in inte- 
gers or fractions. For 2 units cannot be added to 3 hun- 
dred, in any other manner, than by naming or writing 
them, one after the other, as they do not make 5 of any 
denomination ; and, in like manner, § and | cannot be 
added, until they are changed into the same denomination. 
In subtraction, 6 units cannot be taken from Sty, without 
first reducing one or more of the ty, into units. In frac- 
tions, also, f cannot be taken from | until their denomi- 
nation is made the same, by changing the form of one or 
both. Thus it appears, that, although we can multiply 
or divide fractions, however they may differ in denomi- 
nation ; it is always necessary that they should have the 
same denominator before they can be added or subtract- 
ed ; and that the same remark applies to integers. It 
becomes necessary, then, to point out the simplest mode 
of reducing fractions to the same denominator. 

Suppose, then, we w^ished to add or subtract | to or 
from f . If each term of the first fraction be multiplied 
by 5, the denominator of the second ; and each term of 
the second be multiplied by 3, the denominator of the 
first, the value of both will be unchanged, and they will 
have the same denominator 15, namely ; i% and if. In 
this form, there is no difficulty, either in adding or sub- 
tracting them ; and the process, which has been applied 
to the above fractions, may be appHed to any other. In 
general, then, to reduce any two fractions to the same 
denominator, the two terms of each of them must be mul- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 169 

tiplied by the denominator of the other. And any num- 
ber of fractions are reduced to a common denominator, 
by multiplying the tivo terms of each by the product of the 
denominators of all the others ; for it is plain, that the 
new denominators are all the same, since each is the pro- 
duct of all the original denominators and that the new 
fractions have the same value as the former ones, since 
nothing has been done except multiplying each term of 
these by the same number. 

It frequently happens, that fractions can be reduced to 
a common denominator by a shorter and more simple 
process. 

XT . 2 3 XT ^ 1 2 5 

No. 1. — — . No. 2. — — — . 

4 8 4 3 6 

Thus, in No. 1, it is readily perceived, that the f can 
be reduced to eighths, by multiplying both terms by 2, 
which renders it unnecessary to alter the f at all ; and, in 
No. 2, we can see, at a glance, that all the fractions can 
be brought to twelfths, by multiplying both terms of J by 
3, of I by 4, and of | by 2. In these cases, the denom- 
inators 8 and 12 are called the least common multiples. 
Where the least common multiple cannot be found by 
inspection, it may be attained by the following rule : 

1. Place the given numbers, of which you wish to find 
the least common multiple, one after another, in a horizon- 
tal line. 2. Divide as many of these numbers as possi- 
ble, by any common measure, or divisor, setting under- 
neath the several quotients, together with the undivided 
numbers. 3. Proceed with this second rank of numbers, 
as with the first ; and so on, till no further division of 
any two numbers can be made. 4. Multiply together 
the several divisors and the last rank of numbers, and the 
product will be the least common multiple required. 
When the numbers have no common measure, (in which 
case, they are said to be primes to each other,) then it 
follows, that the product of these numbers will be their 
least common multiple. 

Required, the least common multiple of the denomina- 
tors 14, 18, 20, 24. 
15 



170 



2 


14 


18 


20 


24 


3 


7 


9 


10 


12 


2 


7 


3 


10 


4 




7 


3 


5 


2 



2520, least 
common multiple. 

The principle, on which the above rule is founded, is, 
that when any two or more numbers have a common fac- 
tor, it need not be used but once. Now, in the first hne, 
all the numbers have the factor 2, which need only be 
used once. In the second line, 9 and 12 have the com- 
mon factor 3. In the third line, 10 and 4 have the com- 
mon factor 2. We therefore only require the factors in 
the last line, and the divisors, each, once ; which will be 
found to give a number 48 times less, than if we had used 
the first rule, of multiplying each by the product of all the 
others. 

In practice, it will be found convenient, always to 
change mixed numbers or integers, when they occur, into 
improper fractions. 

[Here give examples, for practice, in addition and 
subtraction.] 

All that now remains, on the subject of fractions, is, tiJ 
show the method of changing decimal into vulgar, and 
vulgar into decimal fractions, — processes which maybe in- 
ferred from what has already been said. For, as it was 
shown that the only difference between these two kinds 
bf fractions was, that vulgar fractions had their denomi- 
nations expressed by the figures written under them, while 
the denomination of decimal fractions was implied by 
their distance from the dot which marked the place of 
units, it is plain, that a decimal is converted into a vulgar 
fraction, simply by writing under it its value, or denomi- 
nation ; while a vulgar fraction is converted into a deci- 
mal, by performing the division indicated by its denomi- 
lEiator. Thus, .6 = fjy or |, and, by performing the 
division on either of the vulgar fractions, we have again .6. 

[Reduction, and addition, subtraction, multiplication, 
and division of compound numbers, may now be prac- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 171 

tised. These are, in general, sufficiently explained in our 
common school-books.] 

Proportion.— After the class have sufficiently practised 
the various modes of increasing and decreasing numbers, 
both simple and compound, integers and fractions, they 
should begin to apply their knowledge to the solution of 
arithmetical questions, most (or properly speaking, all) 
of which may be referred to Proportion. But, first, it 
is necessary that a few terms, of frequent occurrence, be 
defined. 

Ratio, or the relation or comparison of two numbers 
as to quantity, is the quotient arising from dividing the 
one by the other, and is thus expressed ; 8:4, or f . 
This ratio is evidently 2. 

The first term of a ratio is called the antecedent, the 
second the consequent. 

In a ratio, both terms must relate to quantities of the 
same nature. Thus, there is a ratio between 9 horses 
and 3 horses, but there can be none between 2 horses 
and 4 barns, because they are not capable of comparison 
as to quantity. This observation should be particularly 
attended to, for, in the old-fashioned method of stating 
proportion, things of different natures are mingled togeth- 
er, rendering the subject difficult of explanation. Thus, 
the question, — If 7 lbs. of sugar cost 75 cts., how many 
lbs. can I buy for $6 i^ — used to be stated thus : 

cts. lbs. cts. 

75 ; 7 : : 600 ; 
a mode which is highly objectionable, as contrary to the 
definition of ratio, there being no ratio between 75 cts. 
and 7 lbs. 

Proportion is the combination of two equal ratios- 
Thus : 

No. 1. No. 2. 

a b c d abed 

4 : 2= 16: 8, 3:9=1:3, 

are proportions, the two ratios in each being equal ; those 
in No. 1 being 2, those in No. 2, J, (one third.) 

The first and last terms of a proportion are called the 
extremes ; the two middle terms, the means. 



172 THE teacher's manual. 

It is evident, from the mere inspection of any propor- 
tion, that the antecedent of the first ratio contains, or is 
contained, as many times in the antecedent of the second, 
as the consequent of the first contains, or is contained, in 
the consequent of the second ; and, from this equality, it 
follows, that the product of the means is equal to the pro- 
duct of the extremes. For, if the numbers of the second 
ratio be double (treble, one half, or any other number of 
times) that of the first, it is evident, that the product of 
the antecedent of the first with the consequent of the sec- 
ond, will be double (treble, one half, or any other number 
of times) the product of the two terms of the first ratio ; 
and that the product of the consequent of the first with 
the antecedent of the second, will also be double (treble, 
one half, or any other number of times) the product of the 
two terms of the first ratio. Consequently, these products 
are equal, because they are both double (treble, one half, 
or any other number of times) the product of the terms 
of the first ratio ; and this equality will occur in all cases, 
whatever. Now, as these equal products are those of the 
extremes and means, we thus have the rule of proportion : 
The product of the means is equal to the product of the 
extremes. 

[Let this be demonstrated, a few times, on the black- 
board, till it has become famihar. It will be intelligible 
to the youngest member of the class, if he has made such 
progress in mental arithmetic, as to have acquired a com- 
mand of his attention. ~\ 

When any three terms of a proportion are given, the 
fourth can easily be found. For, if one of the means be 
wanting, we have only to take the product of the ex- 
tremes, and, as that is equal to the product of the means, 
if we divide by the given mean, the quotient will be the 
other. In like manner, if one of the extremes be wanting, 
it can be found by dividing the product of the means by 
the given extreme. Thus, in the two following propor- 
tions, in which x stands for the unknown number : 

No. 1. 4:6=a;:18. No. 2. a;: 4=3:6. 

1. The product of the extremes 4 X 18 =72, which, 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 173 

being also the product of the means, dividing by the given 
mean, (6,) will give the other, (12,) which here is rep- 
resented by X. 

2. The product of the means 4 X 3= 12, divided by 
the extreme 6, gives the other, 2. 

It appears from the above, that it is of no consequence 
which term of the proportion is wanting. If any three 
are given, the fourth can be found. But, as it will be 
more convenient for the student always to place the un- 
known terra last, we shall regularly pursue that course. 
Let us now proceed to the solution of questions, which 
we shall copy from Adams's ' New Arithmetic' But we 
shall work them out in a manner entirely different. 

Rule of Three. — 1. If a piece of cloth, 4 yards long, 
cost 12 dollars, ichat will be the cost of a piece of the 
same cloth, 7 yards long ? 

Our first business is, to ascertain, what it is that is 
wanted, which will be known from the words asking the 
question. In the above, we know it to be money ; be- 
cause the question is, " what will be the cost .^" There- 
fore, 12 dollars is one of the terms of the imperfect ratio. 
Accordingly, we write it thus, \2 : x ; the x representing 
the unknown number. The other ratio is one of yards., 
and the numbers 4 and 7. To know in what order to 
place them, we read the question, and say, More^ or 
less ? As 7 yards will evidently cost more than 4, the 
answer is. More. Having thus ascertained, that the con- 
sequent X is more than 12, the other ratio must be placed 
in the same order, that is, making its largest term the 
consequent : 

4 : 7 = 12: a;. 

We might now proceed to take the product of the 
means, (7 X 12,) and dividing by the given extreme, 
(4,) would show the amount of the other, represented 
by X ; but, as this, and almost all other questions, can 
readily be abbreviated, it will be proper to examine 
the proportion more particularly, with that view. At a 
^nce, then, it will be perceived, that the 7 and 12 are 
factors, according to the rule, and 4 a divisor. But, as 
15* 



174 THE teacher's manual. 

we found, when investigating fractions, that, when there 
were both factors and divisors in a computation, the result 
was the same, if we divided both a divisor and a factor 
by the same number, it appears that, if we divide 4 and 
12 by 4, we shall have the same proportion, 

1:7 = 3: a;, 

in which cc^ the answer, is seen, by inspection, to be 21. 

2. If a horse travel 30 miles in 6 hours, how many 
miles will he travel in 11 hours, at that rate.'' [Ask 
again, More^ or less ?] 

6 : 1 1 = 30 : a; 
Dividing by 6, 1:11= 5 : a?= 55, by inspection. 

3. At $54 for 9 barrels of flour, how many barrels 
may be purchased for $186 ? \_More^ or less ?] 

54: 186 = 9 : x 
Dividing by 9, 6 : 186 = 1 : a; 

'' "6, 1: 31 = 1 :a;= 31, by inspection. 

Many of these questions may be still further shortened, 
by abbreviating, mentally, while first stating them. Thus : 

4. If 3 men perform a certain piece of work in 10 
days, how long will it take 6 men to do the same } 

Dividing by 3, 2 : 1 = 10 : a;=: 5, by inspection. 

Fellowship. — 1 . Two men own a ticket ; the first owns 
I, the second |, of it. The ticket draws a prize of $40. 
What is each man's share .'' 

First man, 1 fourth. 
Second man, 3 fourths. 

T 

First man's proportion, 4 : 1 =40 : a; = 10, by inspection. 

Second'^ '' 4: 3 = 40: a; 

Dividing by 4, 1 : 3= 10 : a;=30 «' '« 

40, proof. 

2. Two persons have a joint stock in trade. A puts 
in $250, and B $350 ; they gain $400. What is each 
man's share ? 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 175 

A's stock, 250 
B's " 350 



600 
Dividing by 200, mentally, 
3 : 250 = 2 : a; = evidently J of 500 = $166| 
3 : 350 = 2 : a; = 1 of 700 = $2334 

Proof, $400 
3. A bankrupt is indebted to A, $780, to B, $460, 
and to C, $760 ; his estate is v^^orth only $600. How 
must it be divided ? 

A's debt, $780 
B's '' 460 
C's " 760 

$2000 
Dividing by 200, mentally, 

10 : 780 = 3 : a; = 234, by inspection. 
10 :460 = 3 : a;= 138 '' '' 

10 : 760 = 3 : a; = 228 " " 



$600, proof. 
Fractions. — 1 . If ^^ lb. of sugar cost ^V o^ ^ shilling, 
what will ff of a lb. cost ? 

n 33_^ x_ 
30 ' 43 ~ 15 ' x' 
By reversing our divisor, ^^, the whole proportion is 
changed into multiplication of fractions. 

^ . 30 33 7 a: 

Reversmg, _x-X-=--. 

2 3 7 42 
Dividing by 11 and by 15, — X — X — = 2i ^^^ shilling. 

2. If tV of a ship costs $252, what is ^ of her worth ? 
16 3 252 
Reversing, Y ^ 32 ^ ^~' 

3 36 
Dividing by 16 and 7, — x — = $54, by inspection. 



176 THE teacher's manual. 

This question might as readily have been performed in 
one line, by reversing and dividing at the same time. 

Every question is not susceptible of such abbrevia- 
tions ; but a vast majority may be thus considerably short- 
ened, and a large number entirely so, as above, so as to 
require no multiplication. The pupil should be encour- 
aged even still further to shorten such questions, by re- 
solving all the abbreviating processes into one, mentally, 
while stating the question. Such a habit is easily ac- 
quired. Children of both sexes, under nine years of age, 
have solved questions like the above, without writing them 
down, at all, merely by inspecting the book. Where 
questions cannot be sufficiently abbreviated to be solved 
by inspection, recourse must be had to the rule, Product 
of means = product of extremes. 

Compound Proportion. — Proportion is said to be com- 
pound, when the imperfect ratio is not equal to another 
given ratio, but is compounded of several relations, or ra- 
tios. Take, for instance, the following question : 

1 . If a man travel 273 miles in 13 days, travelling only 
7 hours in a day, how many miles will he travel in 12 
days, travelling 10 hours in a day ? 

Here it will be perceived, that the question, — How many 
miles ? — -depends neither entirely on the number of days, 
nor on the number of hours travelled in each day, but is 
influenced by both. It might be resolved into two ques- 
tions of simple proportion ^ but it is more easily and sim- 
ply treated as one, of compound proportion, solved, how- 
ever, on the same principles. 

Days. Days. Miles. Miles. 

Hours 7:10^^^^'^' 

Dividing 273 by 13 and by 7, or by their product, 91, 

1 • 12 ? 

-, i jQ > 3 : a: = 360, by inspection. 

2. If 6 men build a wall, 20 feet long, 6 feet high, and 
4 feet thick, in 16 days, in lohat time will 24 men build 
one, 200 feet long, 8 feet high, and 6 feet thick ? 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 177 



24:6 
20 : 200 

6:8 

4:6 



Contracting, X-^ 
16: a:. ^ 



"€l 2 
-SOO-10 



4 

44-:rp = S0, 
by inspect. 



This was done by dividing 24 and 8 by 8 ; 20 and 200 
by 20 ; 3 and 6 (first ratio) by 3 ; 6 and 6 by 6 ; 4 and 
16 by 4. It is hardly necessary to observe, that, in these 
abbreviations, all the Is have been omitted, as the mul- 
tiplying or dividing by that number can produce no change. 

3. If 56 lbs. of bread be sufficient for 7 men 14 days, 
how much bread will serve 21 men 3 days ? 

'^ :21 ) -^ 
14: 3r • 

Contracting by 7 and 14, ) i ! q ( 4 : a; = 36, by inspect. 

There being a greater variety of numbers in compound 
proportion, it admits of contractions more frequently than 
simple proportion, though there may be some questions, 
which are not susceptible of any. When multiplication 
has to be performed, it should be recollected, that the 
left-hand extreme and the first mean, consist of several 
nuro.bers, the product of which being severally taken, we 
proceed as in simple proportion. The teacher should 
be careful to impress on his pupils the necessity of asking 
the question, More^ or less 9 previously to the writing 
down of every ratio. Thus, in the last question, let the 
pupil say, How much bread ? 56 : x. If 56 be sufficient 
for 7, how much for 21 ? More, or less ^ More. Then 
the consequent must be the greater ; 7 : 21. If 56 be 
sufficient for 14 days, how much for 3 ? More, or less ? 
Less. Then the antecedent must be the greater ; 14 : 3. 

4. If $100 gain $6, in one year, what will $400 gain 
in 9 months ? 

100 : 400 ) . Dividing by 100 ( 1 : 2 ) 

12:9 \^'^' and 6 and 2, ll:9\^ '^~^^' 

Interest. — Let the subject of interest be explained from 
any of the popular books on arithmetic ; adding. 

The words, per cent., per ann.., are either expressed or 



1?S THE teacher's MANUAL. 

understood, in every question respecting interest, imme- 
diately after the rate. 

Per cent, means /or every hundred. 

Per ann. means /or every year. 

When the rate is not expressed, six is always under- 
stood. 

For instance, in the following question, What is the 
interest of ^11. 04 for 1 year, at 3 per cent. ? the words, 
per annum, are understood. And in the question. What 
is the interest of $150 for 16 days ? the words, at 6 per 
cent, per ann.., are understood, and must be supplied, in 
stating the question. From the want of a clear under- 
standing of the terras employed, many pupils find the sub- 
ject of interest exceedingly difficult. Let the teacher re- 
peatedly question his class, till he is sure they are thor- 
oughly understood. 

Case I. — Principal, time, and rate, given, to find the 
interest or amount. 

1. What is the interest of $11.04, for 1 year, at 3 per 
cent. .'' 

100 
lyr. 

> 3 : a;= .3312, by inspec. 

2. What is the interest of $150, for 16 days ? 
100 : 150 ) ^ Divide by 1000 ( 1 : .15 K 
360: 16 J ^ •^- and 6. ^ 6 : 16 J ^ * '^• 

Divide by 6, that is, the upper by 3, the lower by 2. 

1 : .05 ? . , . 

. r^>oc:.4, by mspection. 

3. 'What is the interest of $1000, for 120 years ? 
Divide by 100. ) } ! 12O I ^ ' ^=P^^^^ ^7 inspection. 

4. What is the interest of $520.04, for 30 years and 
6 months ? 

100 : 520.04 ) ^ 
12:366 p-^- 

Divide by 100 and by 12, that is, 366 by 2, and 6 by 6. 



Dividing by 100, j : 



1 yr. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 179 

1 : 5.2004 



I 1 :x = 



1:183 ^^.^-951.6732. 

5. What is the interest of $400, for 10 years, 3 months, 
and 6 days ? 

100 : 400 If. 
360 : 3696 \^ '^' 

Divide by 1000 and 6. j | .' gl 6 ( ^ : a; = $246.40. 

6. What is the amount of £100 for 8 years ? 



100 : 100 

1 :8 



i6:x =48, interest, by inspection. 
' 100, principal. 



£148, amount. 
Case II. — The time, rate per cent., and amount, giv- 
en, to find the principal. 

1. What sum of money, put at interest at 6 per cent., 
will amount to $61.02 in 1 year and 4 months ? 

Here, as we have only one amount given, we must find 
another at the same rate and time, to complete the ratio. 
Let us find the amount of $100. 
100: 100 
12: 16 



^ '.X. 



Divide by 100 and 12. j , ; g ( 1 : a: = 8, interest. 
^ * ^ 100, principal. 

$108, amount. 

Amt. Amt. Princ. 

108 : 61.02= 100 \x. 
Removing the dot, viz. multiplying by 100, and dividing 
by 108, gives a: = $56.50. 

2. What principal, at 8 per cent., in 1 year and 6 
months, will amount to $85.12 ? 
100 : 100 
12: 18 



8 :x. 



Divide by 100 and 12. < . J ^ > 2 : a;= 12, interest. 
' ' ' 100, principal. 



$112, amount. 



180 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

112: 85.12= 100: a? = $76. 
Removing the dot, and dividing by 112, gives the an- 
swer, $76. 

3. Suppose I owe a man $397.50, to be paid in a 
year, without interest, and I wish to pay him now. How 
much ought I to pay him, w^hen the usual rate is 6 per 
cent. ? Evidently, such a sum, as, put to interest, would, 
in 1 year, amount to $397.50. Such a sum is called the 
present worth of $397.50. 

100: 100 > ^ ^ . 

> 6 : a? = 6, mterest. 

^ 100, principal. 

$106, amount. 
Removing dot, and dividing by 106, 

106 : 397.50 = 100 : a; = $375. 

Case III. — Time, rate, and interest, given, to find the 
principal. 

1. What sum of money, put at interest 16 months, will 
gain $10.50, at 6 per cent. ? 

6 : 10.50 } .^^ 
16:12 5100:0;. 

Divide by 12 and ( 1 : 1050 ) ^ , ,^,^1.25, by inspec. 
remove dot. ^8:1 ) j j t 

2. A man paid $4.52 interest, at the end of 1 year 
and 4 months. What was the principal ? 

6 

16 

Divide by 12 and ^ 1 

remove dot. ( 8 

3. A man received for interest, at the end of a year, 
$20. What was the principal ? 

\\\^\ 100 : a; = $3331, by inspection. 

Case IV. — Principal, interest, and time, given, to find 
the rate per cent. 

J. If I pay $3.78 interest, for the use of $36, for 18 
months, what is the rate per cent. ? 



4.52 ) 1^^ 
125100:0:. 

452 ) 

- > 1 :a; = 56.50, by inspection. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 181 

Here we suppress the dot, and strike out 100 ; divide 
36 and 12 by 12 ; and divide 378 by 3 X 18 = 54. 

2. If I pay $2.34 for the use of $468, 1 month, what 
is the rate per cent. ? 

468-:i-ee- 



1 :4^ '^^""^ 
6 
Case V. — Principal, rate per cent., and interest, given, 
to find the time. 

1. The interest on a note of $36, at 7 per cent., was 
$3.78. What was the time ? 

JQ^ ' IQ Q ^ 

>e^ ! q ^p [ -4^* a?= 18 months. 
18 

2. On a note of $600, paid interest $20, at 8 per cent. 
What was the time .'' 

4^: x = 5. 



^ 



5 

The different cases of simple interest, then, are noth- 
ing more than compound proportion. If care be taken 
that the subject required is made the imperfect ratio, and, 
with respect to each of the other ratios, the question be 
always asked, What effect will it produce on the answer ? 
will it make it more or less ? the student can never be at a 
loss in stating the question. If the answer be, tMbre, of 
course the consequent must be the greater. If Less, the 
antecedent. A very few questions, worked out on the 
blackboard by an intelligent teacher, will give his pupils 
a practical knowledge of the whole system of arithmetic, 
which could not be easily attained by any other means ; 
and they will be able to perform such questions as the 
above, after a little practice, with still fewer figures. 
16 



182 

In this mode of teaching, the pupil is not embarrassed 
by a multiplicity of rules ; there is but one simple rule, 
the equality of the means and extremes. 

The other subjects generally connected with arithmetic, 
namely, compound interest, involution and evolution, 
arithmetical and geometrical progression, properly belong 
to algebra ; and are best understood in that connexion. 
Should the teacher, however, prefer the old course, these 
can be taught from any of the popular treatises on arith- 
metic. When a teacher introduces the system here pre- 
sented, he should caution his class to pay no attention to 
the rules laid down in the books from which they will 
copy their practical questions, unless otherwise directed. 
Mingling the two systems would produce nothing but in- 
^X,tricable confusion. 



CHAPTER IX. 

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 

Geography. ~ 

This science should be taught, as much as possible, 
upon maps ; and the reason why all maps are imperfect 
should be pointed out. Every school should possess a 
small globe. Each pupil should have his skeleton maps, 
to be filled up from time to time ; and, whenever any 
place is mentioned, either in the course of reading or in 
composition or elocution exercises, the teacher should in- 
quire where it is ; and whether it is on their maps.- If 
its situation is not known, the name should be written on 
a corner of the blackboard, till the gazetteer is consulted. 
It would be well, if one set of skeleton maps were appro- 
priated to this especial use, and hung up in a conspicuous 
part of the room. The geographical treatise should be 
used as a reading book, and never conned, or committed 
to memory. ' Parley's Geography' should be the first 
book on this subject. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 183 

History. 

Parley's First, Second, and Third, Books of History 
are good introductions to this science. In reading histo- 
tory, maps should always be consulted. They elucidate 
and give an air of reality to the subject. The teacher 
should satisfy himself, by appropriate questions, that the 
pupils have clear notions, both of the time and place of 
the events recorded. The American edition of Lavoisne's 
' Genealogical, Historical, Chronological, and Geograph- 
ical Atlas,' and the ' American Atlas,' on the same plan, 
would form invaluable additions to the school library, in 
the hands of a skilful teacher. 

Human Physiology. 

An admirable little work for children, oh this subject, 
by Mrs. Jane Taylor, has been published by the Ameri- 
can Common School Society of New York, which might 
be used as a reading book, after ' Juvenile Lessons,' with 
great advantage. After a portion of it has been read, 
both question and answer, by the class, without study, let 
them close their books, the teacher read the questions, 
and the pupils give answers, in their own words. 

Botany. 

Some popular treatise on botany should be read aloud 
by the teacher, illustrated, as much as possible, by living 
plants. Specimens of all the plants growing in the neigh- 
borhood should be collected, whilst in flower, pressed, and 
dried, for the Herbarium. A Folium should also be 
formed, consisting of well-preserved specimens of leaves, 
of every variety of size and shape. A few macerated 
leaves would be interesting in the folium. A considera- 
ble number of specimens of each kind, both of plants and 
leaves, should be preserved, so as to exchange with dis- 
tant schools, lyceums, or individuals making collections. 

No amusements more completely absorb the attention 
or efforts of youth, than the collecting, arranging, label- 
ling, and exchanging, natural specimens. And, when chil- 
dren and youth are thus engaged, they have neither time 



184 THE teacher's manual. 

nor disposition to devote to vicious pleasures. Their 
kind and generous propensities are also called into vigo- 
rous exercise, by exchanges and presents ; and they are 
thus prepared for an enlightened and liberal course of ac- 
tion, in vi^hatever department of society they may be called 
to take a part. 

Mineralogy and Geology. 

We are not, it is to be feared, yet prepared to carry 
these sciences into our common schools, though it is high- 
ly desirable that they should form a branch of study there. 
It is to be hoped, that some of the votaries of these sci- 
ences vi^ill, ere long, have sufficient patriotism to devote 
their talents tow^ards so simplifying them, as to bring their 
elements, at least, within the reach of early youth. What 
immense advantages might not be derived for our coun- 
try, nay, for the v^^orld, from a million of schoolboys, 
spread all over the land, each with hammer in hand.* 

Agncuhure. 

In the country schools, it is highly important, that the 
boys should acquire correct ideas of the nature of soils, 
the effects of manures, the best kinds of tools and stock, 
and the most profitable methods of cultivation ; on all 
which subjects the majority of our farmers are deplora- 
bly ignorant. The American Common School Union 
have published, in New York, an excellent little work on 
this subject, entitled the 'Farmer's School Book.' 

Vocal Music. 

The introduction of vocal music into our schools is an 
object of great importance. Regarded merely as a re- 
fined pleasure, it has a favorable bearing on public mor- 
als. Let taste and skill in this beautiful art be spread 

* Since writing the above, I have met with Professor Mather's ' Ge- 
ology for Schools,' an admirable little book, but the science is not suf- 
ficiently simplified for children from eight to ten years of age, the best 
season for enlisting youth in active pursuits of this nature. Perhaps 
a knowledge of mineralogy can only become general through the me- 
dium of the Normal Schools. But the question recurs, can it not be 
still mare simplified for early youth ? 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 186 

among us, and every family will have a new resource ; 
home, a new attraction. Social intercourse will be more 
cheerful, and an innocent public amusement will be fur- 
nished to the community. Public amusements, bringing 
multitudes together, to kindle with one emotion, to share 
the same innocent joy, have a humanizing influence ; and, 
among these bonds of society, perhaps no one produces 
so much unmixed good as music. What a fulness of 
enjoyment has our Creator placed within our reach, by 
surrounding us with an atmosphere which may be shaped 
into sweet sounds ! And yet this goodness is almost lost 
upon us, through want of culture of the organ by which 
this provision is to be enjoyed. 

In addition to this consideration, it ought to be remem- 
bered, that vocal music forms a very interesting part of 
Divine worship ; and that, in most Protestant churches, 
it is the only part of the service in which the congregation 
can join. How desirable, then, it is, that no one should be 
excluded from a share in this species of Divine homage ! 

The opinion is still entertained, in many parts of our 
country, that a musical voice and ear has been conferred 
by Providence only on a favored few. But, fortunately, 
this absurd prejudice is fast dying away, under the lauda- 
ble exertions of the Boston Academy of Music, and the 
accounts given by travellers of the universal cultivation 
of vocal music in Europe. No rational mind, who has 
fully examined the subject, can doubt, that the only rea- 
son why music is not equally common here, is, that the 
cultivation of the voice is delayed till it is too late. Like 
every other part of the body, it must be exercised in 
early youth, if we would have it attain strength and pro- 
ficiency. What use should we have of our limbs, or of 
our power of speech, if both were left entirely without 
practice till the age of eighteen or twenty ? And yet this 
is the course adopted with respect to music. During the 
years of infancy, while the vocal organs are delicate and 
pliable, it is totally neglected ; and, because we cannot 
attain a command over it at an adult age, after it lias be- 
come inflexible from want of use, we blame Nature, for 
not giving us a voice ! 

16* 



186 THE teacher's manual. 

If, then, we desire this beautiful accomphshment to be 
universal, let us use the proper means. As soon as a 
body of permanent female teachers have been procured, 
in any town, for the primary schools, let a good teacher 
of vocal music be procured from the Academy, for one 
year ; and let it be considered a duty for the primary 
teachers to attend, whether they have a musical voice or 
not^ with a view of introducing it as a regular exercise in 
the schools. If the teacher be incapable of leading the 
singing in her school, she can teach the elements of the 
science, and let one of the pupils be the leader. When 
once vocal music is fairly introduced into the common 
schools, the object is accomplished for ever. For, where 
music is heard in every house, it will come as naturally 
to children as speech. 

As a school exercise, music cannot fail to produce ad- 
mirable effects. Its power of soothing the passions into 
peace, and of allaying mental fatigue, is every where ac- 
knowledged. In this point of view, if a moderate share 
of time be devoted to it, it will be found to hasten, rather 
than retard, the progress of the other studies ; to cause a 
gain, rather than a loss, of time. As a mental discipline, 
also, it ranks as high as any part of the mathematics, of 
which, indeed, it forms, in some respects, a branch. 

The Higher Branches of Education. 

So much space has been devoted to the studies of the 
primary school, that but little can be afforded to the high- 
er branches of the central schools and colleges. This, 
however, becomes less a matter of regret, as the chief 
errors in education lie in the cultivation of the first branch- 
es. Let but the principles^ laid down in treating of read- 
ing and arithmetic, be carried out, in the study of the 
languages, and the higher branches of the mathematics ; 
let every thing be taught thoroughly and intellectually, 
avoiding, dihgently, all mere mechanical routine ; let 
things, rather than words, be the object of pursuit, and, 
instead of cultivating the memory exclusively, let every 
intellectual faculty have its due share of attention, and all 
will be well. 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. - 187 

Arrangement of Studies, and Order of Recitation. 

In the primary school, it should be distinctly recollect- 
ed, that the main points, to which every thing else should 
bend, are the acquisition of re«c?wg WITH intelligence, 
and the developement of the mental faculties, by a judi- 
cious system of questioning after the reading exercises, and 
by the practice of mental and written arithmetic, and of 
composition. If the hours of attendance vary with the 
respective ages of the scholars, probably the best order 
of recitation would be as follows : 

1. At nine o'clock, when the eldest scholars assemble, 
let them mutually examine each other's compositions, pre- 
pared at home the evening before, and mark the errors. 
When these are disputed, let the teacher be the umpire. 

2. Exercises in elocution ; a certain number being 
called on, by rotation, to narrate some little event, or 
describe some natural object. This always to be done 
standing. 

3. Exercises in mental arithmetic. 

At ten o'clock, on the entrance of the second class, the 
first class to take their slates, and practise written arithme- 
tic the rest of the forenoon. The second class to pursue 
a similar course to that of the first, taking up their written 
arithmetic on the entrance of the third class, at eleven. 

Eleven o'clock. The third class go through their 
reading exercises, singly, or in classes, each to be fol- 
lowed by questioning, spelhng a few words from the les- 
son, and a short exercise on the numeral frame, or men- 
tal arithmetic. 

Afternoon. The whole school being assembled at 
one, a short story, or description in natural history to be 
read by the teacher to the whole school, followed by 
questioning, and a few easy sums in mental arithmetic. 
The rest of the hour to be occupied by reading, &c., of 
the third class, which is to be dismissed, at two. 

Two o'clock. The second class pursue a similar 
course. Illustrations on the blackboard. Dismissed at 
three. 

Three o'clock. First class, a similar course. 



188 THE teacher's manual. 

The Wednesdays (or any other convenient day) 
should be devoted to elocution, composition, reading by 
the teacher on botany, or some other easy science, and, 
in pleasant weather, the teacher should accompany the 
school in an afternoon ramble to the woods or fields, in 
quest of botanical specimens, or (by permission) in 
visits to mills, manufactories, furnaces, &c. 

The exercises of the forenoon might be arranged as 
follows : nine o'clock, first class, elocution, and exami- 
nation of compositions, by teacher. These should be 
longer and more studied than those of other days. Ten 
o'clock. First class at written arithmetic ; second class, 
elocution, and examination of composition, by teacher. 
Eleven o'clock. The whole school listen to reading on 
botany, or whatever interesting subject may then be on 
hand, followed by thorough questioning of the whole 
school. A few minutes should be reserved for asking 
each class what progress they think they have made in 
each study, during the week. 

When the afternoon is unfavorable to going abroad, it 
may be spent, alternately, in conversation and reading of 
some interesting subjects ; or the usual exercises may be 
resumed, and the afternoon walk postponed to the next 
fair day. 

The first hour, of every Thursday afternoon, may be 
devoted to the principles of vocal music, illustrated on 
the blackboard, from the ' Manual,' of the Boston Acad- 
emy. For this purpose, the large board should have the 
five lines of the staff painted either twice or four times 
across it. As soon as the children are able to sing, 
a song or hymn should be struck up at each signal for 
short relaxation from study. 

Studies in the Central School. 

The arrangement of the mathematical studies should 
somewhat depend on the time each student will probably 
have to bestow on them. If he is of such an age, as to 
render it probable that he can go through the whole 
course, perhaps the best plan will be to go through the 
theoretical, and then the practical, part, as follows : 1. 
Algebra, geometry, conic sections, differential and inte- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 189 

gral calculus. 2. Trigonometry, plane and spherical, 
mensuration, surveying, navigation, and civil engineering. 
But when the student has arrived at an age which renders 
it probable that he will not have time for the whole 
course, a different arrangement should be adopted. 
After algebra and geometry, should follow plane trigo- 
nometry, and then such other practical subjects, as he 
may have a particular call or taste for. 

The dead languages should be studied at the same 
time with the mathematics. The extent to which they 
should be pursued, should also depend on the time the 
student will probably be able to devote to them. It 
should be such as to allow of the acquisition of at least 
one living language. 

The order, in which the living languages should be stud- 
ied, should be, unless peculiar circumstances call for a 
different arrangement, French, Spanish, Italian, German, 
Portuguese. 

Rhetoric and the philosophy of grammar should be at- 
tended to, at the commencement of the course. All 
other Enghsh studies may be safely left to the care of the 
student himself, if his faculties have been drawn out and 
improved by a judicious course in the primary school. 
Where there is a good apparatus belonging to the school, 
however, lectures or reading from scientific works will be 
highly profitable, followed by strict questioning. The 
pupils should be encouraged to form an extensive botani- 
cal and mineralogical cabinet for the school. It is very 
desirable, that the teacher should advise his pupils, as to 
their course of private reading, in history, biography, 
metaphysics, political economy, politics, such other sci- 
ences as are not studied in school, the English classical 
writers, poetry, and a few of the best works of fiction. 

One day in the week should be devoted to elocution 
and reading of compositions, which should be of a higher 
cast than those of the primary school, embracing criti- 
cisms on English literature. 

A knowledge of ancient geography should be acquired, 
whilst perusing the classics, by the filling up of skeleton 
maps. A comparative view of ancient and modern geog- 



190 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

raphy may be formed, by writing the ancient names on 
these skeletons, with red ink, and the modern, with black. 
Every student should form such maps for himself. He 
should also make biographical tables, on the model of 
those of Priestley or Le Sage. 

A little time should be allowed for drawing, especially 
when it has been commenced in the primary school. 
Short musical exercises should relieve the tedium of 
study, at intervals, during the day. 



CHAPTER X. 

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONCLUDED. 

Recapitulation. 

In taking a retrospective view of our examination of the 
subject of intellectual education, may not the following 
be regarded as legitimate conclusions ? 

I. That the true mode of improving intellectual educa- 
tion is, to begin at the foundation ; that, if the common 
school be elevated, the college must rise. ' 

n. That man's chief concern on earth is education ; 
and that the business of schools and colleges is simply to 
prepare him to enter on his great course, with ease and 
effect. 

in. That reading is the great key to knowledge ; that 
he, who really possesses it, has every species of know- 
ledge at command ; but that, in order to render it effec- 
tual, the faculty of attention must be fully developed. 

IV. That the full developement of the faculties of ob- 
servation, reflection, reason, judgment, memory, imagi- 
nation, and taste, is necessary to the enjoyment of all 
the advantages of the great school of nature. 

V. That the mathematics and classical studies are both 
necessary, to the proper developement of these faculties. 

VI. That themain objects of teachers' seminaries 
should be, teaching to read properly ; the theory and 
practice of the Jlrt of Teaching ; the use of the Black- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 191 

hoard ; the best manner of training youth in habits of 
Virtue ; and a mode of Discipline founded on correct 
principles. 

VII. That the expense of these seminaries would be a 
mere trifle to any State ; and that, if the common schools 
were placed on a proper footing, they would be wanted 
but for a few years. 

VIII. That the indispensable literary qualifications of 
a teacher of the primary school are reading, orthography, 
WTiting, arithmetic, geography, and the principles of com- 
position ; but that, as many other requisites are desirable, 
and will soon become indispensable, it is the duty of every 
teacher, steadily to extend and improve her knowledge. 

IX. That no one, less qualified than the members of 
the senior class of college ought ever to be thought of as 
a teacher of the central school ; and that we ought, as 
soon as possible, to look for much higher qualifications. 

X. That both grades of teachers should clearly under- 
stand the true object of education ; that they should be 
patterns of neatness and of order ; possess uniformity of 
temper, decision and firmness, patience and persever- 
ance ; be pleasant, affectionate, and disposed to sympa- 
thize with children ; of an unimpeachable moral charac- 
ter ; and, to sum up the whole in one qualification, lovers 
and steadfast followers of truth. 

XI. That, in the selection of a teacher, wages should 
form but a secondary consideration ; but that the inquiry 
into the moral character, and other qualifications, can 
never be too strict. 

XII. That town and county meetings of teachers are 
indispensable, towards the regular advance of improve- 
ment in education. 

XIII. That district hbraries should contain a good se- 
lection of the best school-books, as well as books for cir- 
culation ; and that, in order to extend the usefulness of 
such libraries, a regular system of mutual exchange should 
be adopted. 

XIV. That, in order to produce habits of attention, 
children must constantly^ not occasionally, give an ac- 
count of their reading, in school, in their own words. 



192 THE teacher's manual. 

XV. That, in order to the attainment of orthography, 
children must acquire a habit of observing the form of 

- words, ivhile reading. 

XVI. That giving the a the long, in place of the ob- 
scure, sound, and pronouncing the h where it ought to be 
silent, lead to important errors of emphasis, and, conse- 
quently, of sense ; and that the want of a complete cessa- 
tion of sound after points, and of sufficient variety of 
force and rapidity of utterance, renders reading tame and 
heavy, and thereby destroys its utihty. 

XVII. That the exercise of minutely and accurately 
describing pictures, gives to children a command of lan- 
guage, and improves their powers of observation. 

XVIII. That the xeading of newspapers, in schools, 
accompanied by suitable explanations, by the teacher, 
would convey much useful and practical information. 

XIX. That writing and drawing should be commenced 
simultaneously with reading. 

XX. That, in writing, legibility is a beauty of the first 
order, and that as much should be brought within the com- 
pass of the eye as distinctness will allow. 

XXI. That, in the impressions made on the mind, by 
the organ of sight, the imagination plays an important 
part, and that to distinguish between the impressions 
of imagination and reahty is the chief difficulty in draw- 
ing from Nature. 

XXII. That drawing disciplines the eye and hand, 
and improves the powers of observation, memory, inven- 
tion, and taste ; that, by providing interesting and quiet 
occupation for children, it assists io preserving good dis- 
cipline in families ; and that it is indispensable in many 
professions and trades, and highly useful in others. 

XXIII. That it is of the first importance in a free 
country, that elocution and composition should be univer- 
sally cultivated, and that this can never be effectually 
done, unless commenced in early youth. 

XXIV. That mental arithmetic forms an admirable 
introduction to written arithmetic ; and that the latter 
should be based on principles, not on mechanical rules. 

XXV. That the chief advantage of mental arithmetic 



MORAL EDUCATION. 193 

is the intellectual discipline it affords, to which the knowl- 
edge of the science is but of secondary importance. 

XXVI. That, by the aid of abbreviations, and by 
proper arrangement of the subject, written arithmetic may 
be acquired by young children, in a very short time. 

XXVII. That geography should be principally taught, 
by filling up skeleton maps. 

XXVIII. That botany should be studied in the pri- 
mary school, and that a herbarium and a folium should be 
formed by the pupils. 

XXIX. That vocal music is of great importance, and 
can easily be made a branch in our primary schools. 

XXX. That the mathematics, the dead languages, 
(followed by the living languages,) rhetoric, and the phi- 
losophy of grammar, should be studied, simultaneously, in 
the central school. 

XXXI. That the practice of composition and elocu- 
tion should be continued and extended in the central 
school ; and that a comparative view of ancient and mod- 
ern geography should be acquired, while reading the 
classics, by filling up skeleton maps, with the ancient 
and modern names in ink of different colors. 



CHAPTER XI. 

MORAL EDUCATION. 

'* Can the Ethiopian change his skin ? or the leopard his spots ? 
Then may ye also do good, who have been accustomed to do evil." 
— Jer. xiii. 23. 

«' Train up a child in the way he should go, and, when he is old, he 
will not depart from it." — Prov. xxii. 6. 

We have already had occasion [Part I. Chapter VI.] 
to notice and lament the total want of moral education, 
in our primary schools ; a deficiency which some have 
attempted to justify, from the great variety of rehgious 
faith and modes of worship existing in the community, 
and the danger of converting the school into an engine 
17 



194 

of religious proselytism. But surely this is a reason 
which will not stand the test of examination. Because 
one branch of moral duty (that which relates to religious 
doctrine) is properly rejected, on account of this pecu- 
liarity in the state of society, does it follow that every 
species of moral training must be excluded ? Does not 
this circumstance rather enhance the necessity of a pe- 
culiar attention to that part of moral instruction to whicli 
no such objection can apply ? Is there not an extensive 
field, which may be regarded as common ground, in re- 
spect to which every portion of society, whatever be 
their religious belief, are perfectly agreed ? Is there 
any parent, who does not desire his child to be trained 
to the practice of virtue, and to the avoidance of every 
vicious habit ? that he should be inspired with venera- 
tion, gratitude, and love, to God ? that he should be hon- 
est, faithful, humane, and gentle ; obedient to his pa- 
rents, true to his word ? that he should possess moral 
courage and self-control ; industry, perseverance, econ- 
omy, and temperance ; patience, fortitude, magnanimity, 
and cheerfulness ? Surely not. On these and such 
like points, we shall meet with perfect unanimity. 

The force of these considerations is much increased 
by the reflection, that moral training, to be effectual, 
must be commenced in early youth. And here we 
have once more to lament the same fundamental error, 
so repeatedly noticed in our review of intellectual edu- 
cation, — the adoption of a wrong course in the j^r5^ steps. 
Thus, while some would frighten children into goodness, 
or place morality on an equally false foundation, others 
would leave youth almost without instruction, in the de- 
lusive hope, that experience will teach wisdom, that they 
will know better^ as they advance in life. But, alas ! 
what then availeth knowledge ? In a state of innocence, 
knowledge is all in all. But, when the mind has become 
accustomed to guilt, which makes its approaches, per- 
haps, in the guise of pardonable frailties, rising, by slow 
degrees, into blacker and blacker shades of vice ; at first, 
attacking only occasionally, and finally becoming settled, 
by habit, into a part of man'^s very nature ; when the 



MORAL EDUCATION. 195 

passions, hitherto dormant, are gradually awakened, and, 
from the total want of resistance, are enabled to fix their 
roots deep in the soul ; then mere knowledge is power- 
less. In this state of mind, hardly any thing short of 
miraculous power will restore, man to the state of child- 
like innocence from which he has departed. 

If, then, we would renovate society, we must not wait 
for the maturity of reason, and then expect to root out 
evil habits that have grown with our growth and strength- 
ened with our strength. It is from the beginnings of 
vice, that we must be saved, if we would be saved from 
vice itself. The conscience must be developed on the 
first dawning of reason ; it must be cultivated and strength- 
ened by constant appeals to its jurisdiction ; and a habit 
must be acquired, of listening to, and following, its moni- 
tions.* 



* The following observations were intended for another meridian ; 
but they are so applicable to our situation, that we cannot resist the 
temptation of copying them. 

" What is tht^ naturp. of the education of the hunnbler classes, which 
is extending in England, and has been so long established in Scotland ? 
Is it of a kind to impart useful, practical knowledge for resource in life ? 
Does it communicate to the pupil any light on the important subject of 
his own nature and place in creation ; on the conditions of his physical 
welfare, and his intellectual and moral happiness ? Does it, above all, 
make an attempt to regulate his passions, and train and exercise his 
moral feelings, to prevent his prejudices, suspicions, envying, self- 
conceit, vanity, impracticability, destructiveness, cruelty, and sensu- 
ality ? Alas ! No. It teaches him to read, write, and cipher, 
and leaves him to pick up all the rest as he may. It forms an in- 
structive example of the sedative effects of established habits of think- 
ing, that our ancestors and ourselves have so contentedly held this 
to be education, or the shadow of it, for any rank of society. Read- 
ing, writing, and ciphering, are mere instruments ; when attained, as 
they rarely or never are, after all, by the working class, to a reasona- 
ble perfection, they leave the pupil exactly where he would find him- 
self, were we to put tools into his hands, the use of which, however, 
iie must learn as he may. We know well, that he will be much more 
prone to misapply his tools, and to cut himself with them, than to use 
them aright. So it is with his reading ; for, really, any writing and ac- 
counting of this class^ even the most respectable of them, scarcely de- 
serve the name, and may be here put out of the account. Reading 
consists in the recognition of printed characters, arranged into syllables 
and words. With this most abstract accomplishment may co-exist un- 
regulated propensities, selfish passions, sensual appetites, filthy and in- 



196 

If these views be correct, our course, here, is plain 
and obvious. First, we should exclude every subject, 
having the slightest reference to religious faith or modes 
of worship, confining ourselves, exclusively, to those topics 
which will unequivocally command the assent and appro- 
bation of all. And, secondly, we should point out the 
best mode of developing the moral faculties of children, 
of strengthening their good habits, and repressing those 
which tend to evil. Towards these important ends, 
then, shall our most zealous endeavors be directed ; and, 
though our weak efforts may not be able to accomplish 
much, we shall have reason to be well satisfied, if we 
can only make a beginning in the right course. 

Of all the moral powers, the most important is that 
denominated Conscience, or the faculty by which we 
are enabled, instinctively and instantaneously, to feel ap- 
probation of what we consider as right, and disapproba- 
tion of what we consider as wrong. This is a faculty 
which may and ought to be developed in very early 
youth ; for then it is pure and uncontaminated ; and not, 
as too frequendy in afterlife, perverted by the appetites, 
passions, and prejudices. It is also of the first import- 
ance that it should be called into action, and be kept con- 
temperate habits, profound intellectual darkness, and moral debase- 
ment ; all adhering to a man as closely after, as before, he could read ; 
and, be it marked, these qualities will give their bias to his future vol- 
untary reading, and assuredly degrade and vitiate its character ; it will 
tend to strengthen his prejudices, deepen his superstitions, flatter his 
passions, and excite his animal appetites. Well is all this known to 
the agitator, the quack, and the corrupter. They know, that the man- 
ual laborer can read ; but they know, as well, that he is incapable of 
thinking, or detecting their impositions, if they only flatter his pas- 
sions. No just views of life have ever been given him ; no practical 
knowledge of his actual position in the social system. We are always 
told, that the majority of criminals cannot read, as if the mere faculty 
of reading would have diminished the number of criminals. This is a 
great delusion. For the reasons I have stated, mere reading might 
have increased the number of criminals ; it would be quite ineffective 
in diminishing them. But, if the investigation had gone the length of 
ascertaining with which of the criminals had an attempt at moral train- 
ing and useful knowledge ever been made, we should have found that 
column of the table a blank, and something like cause and effect 
would begin to dawn upon us. It is needless to pursue so obvious a 
matter further." — Simpson, on Popular Education. 



MORAL EDUCATION. 197 

stantly in use ; for, like all the other faculties, it is cher- 
ished and strengthened by exercise, enfeebled and dead- 
ened by inaction. We see what power of muscle the 
arms of the blacksmith acquire, by the habitual use of the 
ponderous sledge ; and we learn, what wonderful strength 
the memory attains, in those who constantly exercise that 
faculty. In like manner, are all our moral faculties 
strengthened by use, and weakened by disuse ; and none 
more so than the faculty of conscience. " The more 
frequently we use our conscience," says President Way- 
land, " in judging between actions, as right and wrong, 
the more easily shall we learn to judge correctly con- 
cerning them. He who, before every action, will delib- 
erately ask himself, ' Is this right, or wrong ?' will sel- 
dom mistake what is his duty. And children may do 
this, as well as grown persons." 

The teacher, then, who would perform his duty, by 
developing the moral, as well as the intellectual, faculties 
of his pupils, should suffer no opportunity of appeahng 
to the conscience to pass unimproved. As an example 
of the manner of making such appeals, let us suppose a 
class was engaged in reading the following story of 

THE ILL-NATURED BOY. 

There was once a little boy, who was so unfortunate 
as to have a very bad man for his father, who was always 
surly and ill-tempered, and never gave his children either 
good instructions or good example ; in consequence of 
which, this little boy, who might, otherwise, have been 
hap^oier and better, became ill-natured, quarrelsome, and 
disagreeable to every body. This httle boy had a cur 
dog, that was the exact image of himself. He was the 
most troublesome, surly creature imaginable, always 
barking at the heels of every horse he came near, and 
worrying every sheep he could meet with ; for which 
reason, both the dog and the boy were disliked by all 
the neighborhood. 

One morning, his father got up early to go to the tav- 
ern, where he intended to stay till night, as it was a holy- 
17# 



198 

day ; but, before he went out, he gave his son some 
bread and cold meat, and told him, that he might go and 
divert himself as he would the whole day. The little 
boy was very much pleased with this hberty ; and, as it 
was a fine morning, he called his dog Tiger to follow 
him, and began his walk. He had not proceeded far, 
before he met a little boy that was driving a flock of 
sheep towards a gate, that he wanted them to enter. 
" Pray, master," said the little boy, " stand still, and 
keep your dog close to you, for fear you frighten my 
sheep." " Oh ! yes, to be sure," answered the ill- 
natured little boy ; " I am to wait here all the morning, 
till you and your sheep have passed, I suppose ! Here, 
Tiger, seize them, boy !" Tiger, at this, sprang forth 
into the middle of the flock, barking and biting on every 
side ; and the sheep, in a general consternation, hurried 
each a separate way. Tiger seemed to enjoy this sport 
equally with his master ; but, in the midst of his triumph, 
he happened, unguardedly, to attack an old ram, that had 
more courage than the rest of the flock. He, instead 
of running away, faced about, and aimed a blow, with 
his forehead, at his enemy, with so much force and dex- 
terity, that he knocked Tiger over and over, and, but- 
ting him several times while he was down, obliged him to 
hmp, howhng, away. The ill-natured little boy, who 
was not capable of loving any thing, had been very much 
diverted with the trepidation of the sheep, and now laugh- 
ed heartily at the misfortune of his dog ; and he would 
have laughed much longer, had not the other little boy, 
provoked beyond his patience at this treatment, thrown 
a stone at him, which hit him full upon the temples, and 
almost knocked him down. He immediately began to 
cry, in concert with his dog ; and, perceiving a man 
coming towards them, who, he fancied, might be the 
owner of the sheep, he thought it most prudent to es- 
cape as speedily as possible. But he had scarcely re- 
covered from the smart which the blow had occasioned, 
before his former mischievous disposition returned, which 
he determined to gratify to the utmost. He had not 
gone far, before he saw a little girl leaning against a 



MORAL EDUCATION. 19^ 

fence, with a large pot of milk at her feet. "Pray," 
said the little girl, " help me up with this pot of milk. 
My mother sent me out to fetch it this morning, and I 
have brought it above a mile upon my head ; but I am 
so tired, that I have been obliged to stop to rest me ; 
and, if I don't return home presently, we shall have no 
pudding to-day ; and, besides, my mother will be angry 
with me." " What ?" said the boy, " you are to have 
a pudding to-day, are you, Miss .^" " Yes," said the 
girl, " and a fine piece of roast beef; for there are uncle 
Will, and uncle John, and grandfather, and all my cous- 
ins, to dine with us ; and we shall be very merry in the 
evening, I can assure you ; so, pray, help me up, as 
speedily as possible." " That I will. Miss," said the 
boy ; and, taking up the jug, he pretended to fix it upon 
her head ; but, just as she had hold of it, he gave it a 
little push, as if he had stumbled, and overturned it upon 
her. The litde girl began to cry violently ; but the 
mischievous boy ran away, laughing heartily, and saying, 
" Good bye, little miss ; give my humble service to uncle 
Will, and grandfather, and the dear httle cousins !" 

This prank encouraged him very much ; for he thought, 
that now he had certainly escaped without any bad con- 
sequences. So he went on, applauding his own ingenu- 
ity, and came to a green, where several little boys were 
at play. He desired leave to play with them, which they 
allowed him to do. But he could not be contented long, 
without exerting his evil disposition ; so, taking an oppor- 
tunity, when it was his turn to fling the ball, instead of 
flinging it in the Way he ought to have done, he threw it 
into a deep, muddy ditch. The little boys ran, in a great 
hurry, to see what was become of it ; and, as they were 
standing all together upon the brink, he gave the outer- 
most boy a violent push against his neighbor ; he, not be- 
ing able to resist the violence, tumbled against the next, 
that next against another, by which means, they all soused 
into the ditch together. They soon scrambled out, al- 
though in a dirty plight, and were going to punish him for 
his ill behavior ; but he patted Tiger upon the back, 
who began snarling and growling, in such a manner, as 



200 THE teacher's manual. 

made them desist. Thus, this little mischievous boy es- 
caped, a second time, with impunity. 

The next thing that he met with was a poor jackass, 
feeding, very quietly, in a ditch. The little boy, seeing 
that nobody was within sight, thought this was an oppor- 
nity of plaguing an animal that was not to be lost ; so he 
went and cut a large bunch of thorns, which he contrived 
to fix to the poor beast's tail, and then, setting Tiger at 
him, he was extremely diverted to see the fright and ag- 
ony the creature was in. But it did not fare so well with 
Tiger, who, while he was baying and biting the animal's 
heels, received so severe a kick upon his head, as laid 
him dead upon the spot. The boy, who had no affection 
for his dog, left him with the greatest unconcern, when 
he saw what had happened, and, finding himself hungry, 
sat down by the wayside, to eat his dinner. &c. &c. 

The reading of this story might be followed by such 
questions as these : What kind of a boy have you been 
reading about ? What was the cause of his being so ill- 
natured, quarrelsome, and disagreeable ? Does he de- 
serve punishment for his pranks ? Must he not be in 
continual fear of it ? Whether should we pity or hate 
him ? Can he be happy, with such a disposition ? Can 
any body love him ? Was it right, to set Tiger on the 
sheep ? Who made those sheep ? Will God be pleased, 
to see us torment or injure any of the creatures that he 
has made ? What did the boy do to the little girl ? 
Was that right ? Can there be any real pleasure in act- 
ing so ? Is it right to laugh, when we see an accident 
happen to any one ? What should we do, when we see 
such an accident ? When he played with the boys, what 
did he do with the ball ? Was that right ? Do you 
think the boys will let him play with them again ? What 
did he do to the boys ? Was that right ? How would 
you feel, if you were to see a boy act so ? Whose part, 
do you think, would you take ? What did the boy do to 
the jackass ? Was that right ? Should you like to see 
boys play such tricks ? Could you love such a boy ? 
Do you think you would choose him for your playmate ? 



MORAL EDUCATION. 201 

Would you like to have him live in the same house with 
you ? Would you like to have such boys Hve in the 
town ? Can a good boy delight to torment any creature ? 
Have we a right to tease or hurt any creature, that does 
not belong to us ? Have we a right to torment a crea- 
ture that does belong to us ? Why not ? 

But, as our school-books present us with but few mor- 
al lessons, we must not rely entirely on this source, for 
the developement of the conscience. Nor, in fact, would 
this be desirable. The litde occurrences that take place 
in school, or come within the knowledge of the scholars, 
will present more useful and practical occasions for ap- 
peals to the moral sense than fictitious narratives. But 
even these will not happen with sufficient frequency for 
our purpose. It will be found highly useful, for every 
school to be provided with a Table of Duties for constant 
practice, and still more so, for every child to have a Dai- 
ly Record^ for the purpose of self-examination. The fol- 
lowing are specimens of such Record and Table, with 
suitable explanations. 

RECORD OF DUTIES FOR DAILY SELF-EXAMINATION. 

The object of the following record is to bring every 
child, as early as possible, to the knowledge of his duties, 
and assist him in their performance. It is intended to be 
written or printed, with blank columns for every day in 
the year, to be filled up by the child himself, with straight 
m.arks, (thus, I,) for faults or deficiencies, and round marks, 
(thus, O,) when he considers himself blameless. In addi- 
tion to the daily record, there should also be two columns, 
in separate tables, for every week, month, and year ; thus 
affording a summary and comparative view of the state of 
his mind, from one period to another, and distinctly show- 
ing, whether he is improving, stationary, or retrograding. 
At the end of the table should be one or two blank leaves, 
for reflections on the past, and resolutions for the future, 
by the pupil ; or, when he is very young, for advice from 
his parent or teacher. 

The manner of using the Daily Record is as follows : 



202 THE teacher's manual. 

Let the following questions be slowly read by the teacher 
to his class, at the close of school ; or, in the evening, by 
the parents to their children ; or by each child, for him- 
self ; making sufficient pause, at the end of each, for re- 
flection as to the answer, the nature of which will suggest 
the kind of mark to be inserted in the column for the day. 
The numbers attached to the questions correspond with 
those annexed to the several duties in the Table. Thus, 
the first question, 1. Have I told any lies to-day ? cor- 
responds with the first article in the table, namely, 1. 
Truth. If, on the first day of January, the conscience 
answers, JVo, to this question, the pupil should put an O, 
opposite the word Truth, and under January 1. But if 
the conscience will not allow of a negative, the mark of 
reproof, I, should be inserted ; and so with all the other 
duties, and the other dates. 

In the weekly record, extending from one to fifty-two, 
(the number of weeks in a year,) there should be two 
columns for each week, one for the number of marks of 
blame, I, the other for the number of credit marks, O. 
Thus, if, in the daily record for the first w^eek, there 
are four marks of blame opposite the word Truth, and 
three credit marks, they should be written thus, |4 I|3 O. 
The same course should be pursued with the monthly and 
yearly record, each of which should also have two col- 
umns. 

The pupils should show the weekly, monthly, and year- 
ly, records to their parents or teacher, who should offer 
encouragement, or mild reproof, or both, according to 
circumstances. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Have I told any lies to-day ? 2. Have I spoken 
the exact truth, neither more nor less ? 3. Have I so 
spoken, as always to convey the truth to others ; or so as 
to mislead them, although my words were really true ? 
Is not this the same as telling a he ? 4. Have I been 
honest, taking nothing but what w^as really my own ? 5. 
Have I used the property of my parents and others, so 



MORAL EDUCATION. 203 

as not unnecessarily to injure it ? 6. Have I been obe- 
dient to my parents ? 7. Have I acted as if I loved 
them ? 8. Have I acted towards my brothers and sis- 
ters as if I loved them ? 9. Do I love all my friends ? 

10. Have I been grateful for every mark of kindness ? 

11. Have I been faithful to my friends, by taking their 
part, when injured, either by word or deed ? 12. Have I 
treated all my superiors in age and station with proper 
respect ? 13. Have I allowed myself to show, or even 
to feel, anger or revenge ? 14. Have I felt fretful or sul- 
len ? 15. Have I been pohte to all, — acquaintance and 
friends, as well as strangers ? 16. Have I been uniform- 
ly mild in my manners, and used no roughness of speech .'' 
17. Have I been pleased to see others happy, and sorry 
to see others suffer, or to see them act amiss ? 18. In 
talking or thinking of others, have I looked more at their 
follies or faults, than at their goodness ? 19. When I 
have seen others injured, have I felt for them, and taken 
their part ^ 20. Have I been liberal, and ready to share 
with my friends and playmates ? 21. Have I been 
ready to forgive those who have injured me .'' 22. Have 
I been careful not to injure the property of others ? 23. 
Have I been cruel to animals ? 24. Have I been asham- 
ed or afraid to do what was right ? 25. Have I acted 
right, even when I felt a wish to do wrong ? Have I 
striven to gain a command over myself? 26. Have I 
been very careful to do the right, and avoid the wrong ? 
27. Have I been anxious to learn what was good or 
useful ? 28. Have I idled away my time, when I ought 
to have been busy ? 29. Have I been impatient, or have 
I been persevering in my studies or work ? 30. Have 
I been careful, or wasteful, of my food, clothing, or books ? 
31. Have I been greedy, or ate or drunk more than was 
proper ? 32. Have I been patient in pain, sickness, or 
trouble of any kind ? 33. Have I been cheerful, or 
have I allowed myself to imagine affairs to be worse than 
they really were ? 34. Have I allowed myself to think 
'' how good I am," or have I looked rather to my faults, 
and felt sorry they were still so many ^ 35. Have I 
been neither bashful nor affected .'* 36. Have I kept 



204 



THE teacher's MANUAL. 



my dress, books, and bedroom, neat and clean ? 37. 
Have I put my books, clothes, and tools, in their proper 
places ? 38. Have I been anxious for improvement, 
both in my conduct and in my studies ? 39. Do I re- 
gard my Maker with reverence and awe ? 40. Do I feel 
very grateful for His uniform kindness ? 41. Have I a 
strong feeling of love towards Him ? 42. Do I feel a 
perfect confidence in His goodness and care ? 43. Do 
I feel completely resigned to His will, assured that He 
always acts for the best, though I may not understand 
it ? 44. Is my sorrow for doing wrong of such a na- 
ture, as to lead me to do right, or does it produce no 
change in conduct and disposition ? 45, 46, 47, &c., to 
be filled up, at the discretion of the parents, or under 
their direction. 

A few of these questions will require some explana- 
tion for the youngest children. It is thought better to 
leave this to parents or teachers, than to be very diffuse. 





RECORD. 








I. 


25. 


Self-control. 


1. 


Truth. 


26. 


Vigilance. 


2. 


Exaggeration. 


27. 


Docility. 


3. 


Sincerity. 


28. 


Industry. 


4. 


Honesty. 


29. 


Perseverance. 


5. 


Faithfulness. 


30. 


Economy. 


6. 


Obedience. 


31. 


Temperance. 


7. 


Love to parents. 


32. 


Patience. 


8. 


Brotherly love. 


33. 


Cheerfulness. 


9. 


Friendship. 


34. 


Humility, 


10. 


Gratitude. 


35. 


Simplicity. 


11. 


Fidelity. 


36. 


Neatness. 


12. 


Respect. 


37. 


Order. 


13. 


Good temper. 


38. 


Desire of excellence. 


14. 


Good humor. 




III. 


15. 


Politeness. 


39. 


Veneration. 


16. 


Mildness. 


40. 


Gratitude. 


17. 


Sympathy. 


41. 


Love. 


18. 


Charity. 


42. 


Confidence. 


19. 


Indignation. 


43. 


Resignation. 


20. 


Generosity. 


44. 


Repentance. 


21. 


Magnanimity. 


45. 




22. 


Respect to property. 


46. 




23. 


Kindness to animals. 


47. 






II. 


48. 




24. 


Moral Courage. 


&c. 





MORAL EDUCATION. 205 

But this Record would form a useful exercise, not 
merely for the scholars ; the greater part of it is equal- 
ly applicable to the teacher. Should she make a selec- 
tion ibr her own use, the following questions might be 
added, as referring to some of her peculiar duties. 

Were my pupils punctual in attendance, to-day ? 
Have I taken proper pains to show them and their parents 
the importance of punctuality, as a duty, both to them- 
selves and to the other members of the school ? Do 
they improve in this respect ? Have I introduced clean- 
ly and orderly habits ? Has my conduct been a pat- 
tern in this respect ? Has there been no rude conduct 
around the stove } Has the room been of the proper 
temperature to-day ? If not, was it not owing, in some 
degree, to my inattention ? Have I attended properly to 
excluding the glare of sunshine ? Are the windows prop- 
erly curtained ? Are there a mat, scraper, pail, dipper, 
basin, and towel, in the room ? If any of these are want^ 
ing, have I made proper representations to the commit- 
tee ? Have I taken sufficient pains to teach the scholars 
to use their books without injury ? Is the discipline on 
the best possible footing ? Do the children improve in 
reading ? Are they fast leaving off their bad habits in 
this respect ? Do I never neglect questioning them, as 
to what they have read ? Do their habits of attention 
and observation improve ? Have I taken proper pains 
to cause them to use right positions of hand and body, in 
writing ? Do they make visible improvement ? Do 
they steadily improve in elocution and composition ? 
Do they use no grimace nor awkward motions, in the 
former ? Are the orthography, punctuation, and gram- 
mar, properly attended to, in the compositions ? Do 
they advance, in propriety of expression and command of 
language, or do I allow them to hang back, or remain 
stationary ? Have I formed a list of local improprieties 
of speech ? Do I frequently exercise the scholars with 
it ? Has this exercise any practical effect, in correcting 
their language ? Do my pupils improve in written arith- 
metic ? Can they add long sums rapidly ? Do they 
habitually use all the abreviations I have taught them ? 
18 



206 

Have I taken sufficient pains in this respect ? Can they 
explain the reasons for every operation ? Do I frequent- 
ly call on them to do this ? Do they make much pro- 
gress in mental arithmetic ? Do I myself perform the 
questions simultaneously with them ? Do 1 frequently 
require them to describe and give reasons for their men- 
tal operations ? Do I never allow them to have the 
book ? Do I encourage the slow, and prevent the bright 
from doing more than their share ? Do I see that all the 
pupils perform every question ? Is not my classifica- 
tion capable of improvement ? Have I given this impor- 
tant subject sufficient attention ? Do my pupils advance 
in their other studies ? Do they appear to love and re- 
spect me ? If not, do I feel sure I am not to blame ? 
Have I explained the nature of the Record for Self-ex- 
amination to all the parents and guardians ? Have I daily 
practised it with those whose parents have placed them, 
in this respect, under my care ? Is there any apparent 
moral improvement ? Do I take sufficient pains to pre- 
vent its degenerating into a mere form, by my inattention ? 
Do I embrace every opportunity of referring my pupils 
to the Table of Virtues ? Do I take sufficient pains in 
explaining the terms to the younger pupils ? Do I pos- 
sess uniformity of temper, decision and firmness, patience 
and perseverance ? Am I uniformly pleasant and affec- 
tionate in my manners, and at all times disposed to sym- 
pathize with my pupils ? Do I never allow myself to 
deviate, in the slightest degree, from truth, either in 
thought, word, or action ? 

The Table on the opposite page, printed on sufficient- 
ly legible type, in three columns, one for each species of 
duties, should be hung up in the schoolroom, to be stud- 
ied as follows : Let a class be placed before the table, 
and the teacher open his ' Manual,' at the explanations 
given below ; and then let the pupils and teacher, alter- 
nately, read the 'Duties,' and their respective explana- 
tions. The observations enclosed within brackets, [thus,] 
need not be read to the pupils. They are meant exclu- 
sively for teachers and parents. The younger classes will 
not be able to understand the explanations. They should 
have the Table explained by examples and illustrations. 



MORAL EDUCATION. 



207 



TABLE OF THE VIRTUES, WITH THEIR OPPOSITE VICES. 



I. Duties to God. 

1. Faith.— Unbelief. 

2. Veneration. — Heedlessness ; 

slavish dread, or supersti- 
tious fear. / 
S. Gratitude. — Ingratitude. 

4. Obedience. — Disobedience. 

5. Confidence. — Distrust. 

6. Resignation. — Querulousness, 

despondency, fear of death. 

7. Repentance. — Hypocrisy,pre- 

sumptuousness. 
II. Duties to Ourselves. 

8. Moral courage. — Cowardice. 

9. Self-control. — Indecision. 

10. Forethought. — Want of ditto. 

11. Firmness. — Obstinacy. 

12. Self-examination, vigilance. — 

Carelessness. 

13. Industry. — Indolence. 

14. Prudence, circumspection. — 

Imprudence, rashness. 

15. Discretion. — Indiscretion. 

16. Vigilance. — Suspicion. 

17. Pro-vidence. Profusion, prod- 

igality. 

18. Perseverance. — Irresolution, 

instability. 

19. Economy. — Carelessness, ex- 

travagance, or niggardliness. 

20. Temperance.— Gluttony, drun- 

kenness. 

21. Contentment. — Discontent. 

22. Modesty. — Indelicacy. 

23. Patience, fortitude. — Impa- 

tience, pusillanimity. 

24. Calmness, cheerfulness, seren- 

ity. — Irritability, fretful- 
ness, despondency, gloom. 

25. Self-respect, humility. — Pride, 

vanity, haughtiness, love of 
dominion, conceit, pedan- 
try. 

26. Desire of excellence. — Jeal- 

ousy, envy. 

27. Simplicity. — Bashfulness, af- 

fectation, ostentation. 

28. Neatness. — Foppery, love of 

display. 



29. Docility. — Indocility. 

30. Obedient temper. — Impatience 

of control. 

III. Duties to Others. 
Sec. I. — Justice. 

31. Truth. — Falsehood, perjury. 

32. Sincerity. — Exaggeration, de- 

ceit. 

33. Integrity. — Dishonesty. 

34. Fidelity. — Unfaithfulness. 

35. Conscientousness, respect for 

others' property, or rights. 
— Want of ditto. 

36. Impartiality. — Partiality. 

Sec. II. — Benevolence. 

37. Social affections, viz., conju- 

gal, parental, filial, and fra- 
ternal, love ; friendship. — 
Perfidy. 

38. Humanity. — Inhumanity. 

39. Mercy. — Unmercifulness. 

40. Forbearance, placability. — 

Implacability, moroseness, 
spite. 

41. Charity. — Uncharitableness, 

scandal, defamation. 

42. Tolerance. — Intolerance. 

43. Generosity ,liberality. — Greed- 

iness, avarice, imprudence. 

44. Kindness. — Oppression, cru- 

elty to animals. 

45 . Magnanimity. — Meanness. 

46. Good-temper. — Ill-temper. 

47. Good-humor. — Fretfulness. 

48. Indignation. — Anger, resent- 

ment. 

49. Sympathy. — Selfishness,envy. 

50. Politeness. — Impoliteness. 

51. Affability. — Reserve. 

52. Kindness in conversation. — 

Petulance. 

53. Tenderness. — Harshness. 

54. Mildness. — Rudeness. 

55. Gentleness. — Obstreperous- 

ness. 

56. Respect for age and station. 

—Want of ditto. 

57. Punctuality.— Want of ditto. 



S08 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

On the first reading, five or six lines of the Table will 
suffice for a lesson, after which, let the teacher question 
the class closely, to see if the explanation has been thor- 
oughly understood. This exercise should be repeated, 
till the whole subject is perfectly familiar. The teacher, 
however, should not wait till all the table is understood, 
before he begins to use it ; for practical references will 
illustrate the subject better than any formal explanation. 
The manner of using it is as follows : Whenever an oc- 
casion offers, either in the course of reading, or in the 
sentiments and conduct of the pupils, or in the occurrences 
of the neighborhood, let the class, the school, or the in- 
dividual, as the case may be, consult the table, and point 
out to the teacher, to what virtue or vice the action or 
sentiment should be referred. One or two examples will 
illustrate this : After the reading of the story of the ' Ill- 
natured Boy,' given above, the teacher may ask, " To 
what part of the table may this boy's conduct be referred ?" 
Jlns. " To inhumanity ; to cruelty to animals ; and to 
deceit, (in his treatment of the little girl.") 

" Caesar, having found a collection of letters, written 
by his enemies to Pompey, burnt them, without reading : 
' For,' said he, ' though I am upon my guard against an- 
ger, yet it is safer to remove its cause.' " 

T. To what virtues may these sentiments be referred ? 

C. To prudence, vigilance, magnanimity, and self- 
command. 

T. How was his prudence shown } 

C. By refusing to look at what might have made him 
angry. 

T. His vigilance ? 

C By his forethought, that the letters might have bad 
effects on him. 

T. His magnanimity ? 

C. A mean man seeks every occasion of anger against 
his enemy, a great soul despises it. 

T. His self-command .'' 

C. By his carrying out his determination not to look 
at the letters, notwithstanding the temptation of knowing 
the counsels and plans of his enemies. 



MORAL EDUCATION. 209 

But, although no opportunity should be lost, of making 
such references to the Table, in order to give his pupils 
a facility in naming and classifying sentiments and actions, 
yet the teacher should ever bear distinctly in mind, that 
these are but subsidiary means of attaining our great end, 
and not the end itself. The grand object should be, the 
formation of a habit of referring our own emotions and 
actions to their proper source ; a habit of constantly ask- 
ing ourselves J " Is this right, or wrong ?" A good mor- 
al teacher, then, will be continually on the watch for op- 
portunities of leading his pupils to put such questions to 
themselves, and will consider the judgement they may be 
called on to exercise, as to others, as chiefly useful, in so 
far as it leads to this happy result. 

The Table of Virtues is not offered, either as complete, 
or as classified in the best possible manner. In both res- 
pects, it is highly probable that it is imperfect. In future 
editions, should this work be found sufficiently useful to 
merit such an honor, it is to be hoped that it may be im- 
proved ; and, with that view, the author will be happy to 
avail himself of the suggestions of practical teachers and 
others, who may think it worthy of notice. Meantime, 
however, it may be observed, that, probably, every attempt 
at classification will be found Hable to some objection. 
In the present, it is readily granted, that, although there 
is a great convenience in referring the duties to the heads 
under which they stand, for the sake of easy reference, 
yet, in fact, all our duties may practically be referred to 
any of them. To ourselves^ because every one is bound, 
both by interest and duty, diligently to seek the highest 
improvement of which his nature is capable ; to God, 
because this is the great purpose for which he has endowed 
us with such valuable faculties ; to society, because no 
one can be neutral, but must, by his influence and exam- 
ple, either prove the source of good or evil to the com- 
munity. But still, it is believed, it will be found, that all, 
or most, of the virtues and vices in the Table, will have 
a greater bearing towards the class under which it is ar- 
ranged, than to either of the others. 
18* 



210 THE teacher's MANUAL. 

EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS IN THE TABLE. 

I. Duties to God. 

1. Faith. — Unbelief. — The word faith has many 
meanings. Here, it signifies, believing in a great and 
good Being, who made us, continually protects us, and 
gives us every thing that we possess, tlnbeliefh a crime, 
because every one may and ought to know that there is 
a God ; and because many of our duties cannot be prop- 
erly performed, unless we beheve in His existence. For 
instance, we can neither feel gratitude for His favors, nor 
resignation to His will ; and without these and other vir- 
tues, there is no happiness. 

2. Veneration. — Heedlessness ; slavish dread, or su- 
perstitious fear. — Veneration is the feeling we experience 
towards the great and good. God is its highest object. 
It desires to find out excellence, and to repose on it. It 
renders self, lowly, humble, and submissive. Heedless- 
ness here refers to a total want of thought of the Supreme 
Being. The kind of dread or fear , alluded to, is not that 
salutary fear, which is derived from a knowledge of our 
guilt ; but that, which arises from mistaken views of the 
character of God. 

Numbers three and four require no explanation. 

5. Confidence. — Distrust. — The former relates to the 
presence, the latter, to the absence, of that firm reliance, 
which all should repose in the unremitting kindness and 
watchful care of our Heavenly Parent. 

6 . Resignation. — Querulousness, despondency, fear of 
death. — Resignation is that calm state of mind, arising 
from the confidence described in the last article. Quer- 
ulousness is a habit of mournful complaint, always more 
or less connected with the notion, that we are hardly or 
unjustly dealt with. Some otherwise good people indulge 
in this habit, under an idea that it renders them interesting, 
forgetful that it implies both ingratitude and disobedience 
to the will of God. " x\nd it is to be feared, that many 
pious people cherish gloomy views of life, both among 



MORAL EDUCATION. 211 

themselves and their children, because they think it nec- 
essary to wean the heart from the pleasm-es and posses- 
sions of this world. They speak of it habitually, there- 
fore, as a vale of tears, a path of thorns and briars, through 
which we must pass, in our journey to another world. 
This is, certainly, an erroneous view of life, and is the 
fruitful source of many evils. It disgusts the young and 
the cheerful with religion and religious people, who be- 
come associated, in their minds, with moody dulness, or 
revolting gloom. But the effect of these views, upon per- 
sons of a melancholy temperament, is even worse. They 
are apt to sink deep into the mind, and, coinciding with 
the tendencies of the heart, to overshadow the whole being 
with the dismal mist of habitual despondency. In such cas- 
es, insanity is the frequent result. And where this does not 
happen, where the mind is sustained by religious hope, still, 
how desolate is the existence of that individual, who is 
trained to look upon this world only as a scene of sorrow 
and trial ! And, beside, is it not a false, unprofitable, and 
impious, view of existence ? Has God given this world to 
us, as a curse ? There is, doubtless, a great deal of mis- 
ery in the world ; but it is chiefly brought upon us by our 
own misconduct. And, moreover, the balance of pleas- 
ure infinitely outweighs the pain."* — Despondency is the 
same evil habit, indulged to a greater extent, and connect- 
ed with the idea, that our real or imaginary sufferings are 
permanent. The first approaches of both should be 
checked and discountenanced. The fear^of deaths here 
alluded to, is totally unconnected with the retributions of 
eternity, but intimately connected with the distrust of 
our Heavenly Father, mentioned above. It arises from 
a fear of the pangs supposed to attend the dissolution 
of the connexion between the body and soul, and a sort 
of indistinct notion, that man, himself^ not his mere shelly 
is deposited in the grave. Such expressions as. King 
of Terrors, the cold grave, the dark grave, &c., refer 
to such feelings. Blair thus alludes to them, in his beau- 
tiful poem : 

* Parley's * Fireside Education.^ 



212 THE teacher's manual. 

The grave, dread thing ! 



Men shiver when thou 'rt named ; Nature, appalled. 

Shakes off her wonted firmness. Ah ! how dark 

Thy long-extended realms and rueful wastes, 

Where nought but silence reigns, and night, dark night /" 

Such sentiments are false and injurious to happiness, and 
directly the opposite of confidence in the power and good- 
ness of God, and cheerful resignation to His will. Young, 
in his ' Night Thoughts,' takes the true view of the subject : 

" Why start at Death ? Where is he? Death, arrived, 
Is past ; not come, or gone, he 's never here. 
Ere hope, sensation fails ; black-boding man 
Receives, not suffers. Death's tremendous blow. 
The knell, the shroud, the mattock, and the grave, 
The deep, damp vault, the darkness, and the worm ; 
These are the bugbears of a Winter's eve. 
The terrors of the living, not the dead. 
Imagination's fool, and error's wretch, 
Man makes a death, which Nature never made ; 
Then, on the point of his own fancy, falls, 
And feels a thousand deaths in fearing one.". — JYightlV. 

A late popular writep observes, that, "In the whole 
course of our observation, there is not so misrepresented 
and abused a personage as Death. He has been vilified, 
as the cause of anguish, consternation, and despair ; but 
these are things that appertain, not unto death, but unto 
life. How strange a paradox is this ! We love the dis- 
temper, and loathe the remedy ; preferring the fiercest 
bufFetings of the hurricane to the tranquillity of the har- 
bor. The poet has lent his fictions, the painter his col- 
ors, the orator his tropes, to portray death as the grand 
destroyer, who, for a perishable state, gives us that which 
is eternal ! Can he be styled the enemy, who is the best 
friend only of the best, who never deserts tliem at their 
utmost need, and whose friendship proves the most valu- 
able to those who live the longest ! Can he be termed 
the prince of phantoms and of shades, who destroys that 
which is transient and temporary, to establish that which 
is real and fixed ! And what are the mournful escutch- 
eons, the sable trophies, and the melancholy insignia with 
which we surround him, the sepulchral gloom, the mould- 
ering carcass, and the slimy worm ? These, indeed, are 



MORAL EDUCATION. 21o 

the idle fears, and empty terrors, not of the dead, but of 
the living. The dark domain of death, we dread, indeed, 
to enter, but we ought rather to dread the ruggedness of 
some of the roads' that lead to it ; but, if they are rugged, 
they are short, and it is only those that are smooth, that 
are wearisome and long. But perhaps he summons us 
too soon from the feast of life. Beit so ; if the exchange 
be not for the better, it is not his fault, but our own. — 
Or he summons us late ; the call is a reprieve rather 
than a sentence ; for who would wish to sit at the board, 
when he can no longer partake of the banquet, or to live 
on to pain, when he has long been dead to pleasure ? 
Tyrants can sentence their victims to death, but how 
much more dreadful would be their power, could they 
sentence them to life ? Life is the gaoler of the soul in 
this filthy prison, and its only deliverer is Death ; what 
we call death, is a passport to life. True wisdom thanks 
Death for what he takes, and still more for what he brings. 
Let us, then, like sentinels, be ready, because we are 
uncertain, and calm, because w^e are prepared. There 

ie nothing formidable about death, but the consequences 

of it, and these, we ourselves can regulate and control. 
The shortest hfe is long enough, if it lead to a better, and 
the longest life is too short, if it do not." 

" And what is death ? Death has been styled the 
king of terrors. But to whom ? To none, surely, ex- 
cept the wicked and superstitious. To the disciples of 
enlightened piety, — the ' followers after righteousness and 
truth,' death is really the highest happiness. 

'• 'Man dives in death, in brighter worlds to rise ; 
The grave's the subterranean road to bliss.' 

'' But what is death } Death is an exemption from 
the toils, the perplexities, the various ills, that ' flesh is 
heir to.' It is the enlargement of the soul from the nar- 
row limits of mortality ; from the oppressive restraints of 
an existence circumscribing its enjoyments, its observa- 
tion, and intelligence, to the bounded confines of a single 
locality,— a mere point. Death is the affranchisement 
of the soul from this straitened state of inadequate enjoy- 



214 THE teacher's manual. 

ment, to the glorious freedom of the Sons of God ; with, 
probably, the freedom of ranging where it wills, through- 
out the boundless field of creation ; of visiting, pursuant 
to its own desire, every portion of that ilhmited expanse ; 
and of enjoying the ineffable delight of unconfined obser- 
vation and knowledge. 

'' While connected to the body, with no other avenues 
of intelligence than the corporeal senses, the soul, in the 
exercise of its powers, is much restricted. The body, 
composed of material matter, and hence subject to the 
attracting influence of gravitation, naturally preponderates, 
in common with every other affianced substance, to its 
maternal earth ; and, by no possible effort, can be disen- 
gaged from this connexion. The soul, therefore, insep- 
arably conjoined to its material tenement, participates in 
this restriction, and, except some indistinct perceptions 
of the adjacent heavens, in its views of exterior Nature, is 
confined, entirely, to terrestrial objects. And even of 
these objects, of this world's garniture and occupants, 
there are, doubtless, many things existing, whereof, from 
the destitution of organs to apprehend them, we are utter- 
ly ignorant. ' Millions of spiritual creatures walk the 
earth, unseen.' 

"Pent up within its opaque abode, with only five, 
small, imperfect openings, through which to look upon 
surrounding Nature, and many of these objects, indubita- 
bly, from their minuteness, or immaterial nature, being 
uncognizable by our bodily organs, the soul, in this almost 
entombed state, looking abroad only through a medium so 
contracted and imperfect as the corporeal senses, and 
upon objects subtile beyond sensorial perception, must 
necessarily remain totally unapprised of numerous exist- 
ences, even in immediate proximity to our own persons. 

" But what is death ? Death is the breaking down of 
this intervening partition between the soul and undiscov- 
ered existences ; imparting to that spark, immortal, the 
unrestrained exercise of its perceptive powers ; it is the 
disengagement of intellectual light from material darkness ; 
it is that benign agency, whereby the soul, as the butterfly 
from the chrysalis, is set at large, to roam, observe, re- 



MORAL EDUCATION. 215 

joice, in the plenitude of its newborn being. This, 
when ' the good man yields his breath, for the good man 
never dies,' is, under the Adorable Supreme, the work 
of Death." 

7. Repentance. — Hypocrisy^ presumptuousness. — Re- 
pentance is such a sorrow for doing wrong, as will lead us 
to repair it, as far as it is in our power, and to avoid all 
occasions for it in future. Hypocrisy is of various kinds. 
The species here referred to, is that sort of repentance, 
which bears no fruit. The presumptuousness spoken of, 
is that kind which believes, or pretends to beheve, that 
it never does wrong, and hence has no need of repent- 
ance. 

II. Duties to Ourselves. 

8. Moral Courage. — Cowardice. — The kind of cowr- 
age here alluded to, is not physical, but mental courage, 
— courage to do right, and to endure such wrongs as are 
without remedy ; courage to resist importunity and bad 
example, and to follow out what we deem right, in spite 
of the sneers of the foolish or wicked. The man who 
possesses this courage will never be a duellist. Moral 
cowardice is the reverse of all this. Its subject looks not 
to the approval of God, or of his own conscience, but to 
the opinions of the weaker part of his species, for the reg- 
ulation of his conduct. 

9. Self-control. — Indecision. — Of all the powers of 
the human mind, none, surely, is more valuable, than that 
of self-control. " He that ruleth his spirit," saith Solo- 
mon, '' is better than he that taketh a city." Conquer- 
ors, who have subdued nations, have often been slaves to 
their appetites and passions. They overcame fleets and 
armies, but they could not overcome themselves. Knowl- 
edge, without the power of self-control, is utterly powder- 
less. Paul, in his Epistle to the Romans, vii. 19, pre- 
sents us with a picture of a mind in this condition. '' For 
the good that I would, I do not ; but the evil which I 
would not, that I do." Ovid, in his ' Metamorphoses,' 
has a similar idea : 



216 THE teacher' 

" Video meliora, proboque ; deteriora sequor."* 

"The great principle and foundation of all virtue," 
says Locke, "lies in this : that a man is able to deny 
himself his own desires, cross his own inchnations, and 
purely follow what reason directs as best, though the ap- 
petite lean the other way." 

[What is the cause of the intemperance that has des- 
olated, ay, that still continues to desolate, our land ? 
What is it, that carries our youth forward, with irresistible 
force, as soon as they are fairly engaged in a career of 
gaming, or in any other vicious course ? Feels not the 
drunkard the headache, that "nails him to a noonday 
bed ?" Sees he not, in the sad examples scattered 
around, the certain ruin that awaits him and his family ? 
Feels not the gamester the 

-" pangs 



For property stripp'd off by cruel chance ?" 

Yes, alas ! too surely do both feel their present pain, and 
see their future ruin. But, 

*' Whosoe'er the villain takes in hand, 

Their joints unknit, their sinews melt apace, 

As lithe they grow as any willow wand, 

And of their vanquished force remains no trace." 

Castle of Indolence. 

The efforts of the Temperance Society have been high- 
ly praiseworthy, and the results truly wonderful. Yet, 
after all, they have only been hacking at one of the branch- 
es of the great Tree of Vice which overshadows the land. 
Let their efforts be crowned with complete success, so 
as to render unnecessary the machinery of periodicals, 
?igents, and pledges ; and, before the lapse of another gen- 
eration, the branch at which they had been hewing would 
begin again to throw out its shoots as vigorous as ever. 
It is only by the constant, unwearied use of the axe, that 
it can be kept within bounds. But let the Society, with- 
out withdrawing their attention from the branch they have 
so sorely mangled and lopped, let them now attack the root 
with the same spirit and force that have hitherto character- 

* I see and approve the better, yet follow the worsen 



MORAL EDUCATION. 217 

ized their proceedings, and should we not have reason to 
expect, with the blessing of God, the downfal of the whole 
tree ? But, dropping our metaphor ; is not the root of 
most, or of all the evils that beset mankind, a want of the 
habit or power of self-control ? Is it not possible, by a 
course of training in early youth, to bestow, on all, more 
or less of this most important gift ? Is not the great mass 
of the community in total ignorance as to any means of 
producing this effect ? And could the vast amount of tal- 
ents and wealth which the Temperance Society have at 
command be better employed, than in enlightening the 
community on this most important subject ? Would not 
this be one of the surest means of rooting out intemperance? 
The difference between the present efforts and the one 
recommended, is, that, by the former, the snake is only 
scotched, by the latter, killed, or, at least, deprived of its 
power of mischief. The former have got the monster 
down, and, as long as the struggle is continued, he can be 
kept down ; but let them relax, and leave him to himself, 
he will recover breath, rouse himself, and, sooner or later, 
be as mischievous as ever. The latter would pull out his 
fangs, and render him for ever harmless. But the main 
advantage of the latter lies in this : that, when we have 
once succeeded in the introduction of a course of dis- 
cipline which shall be really efficient, in establishing the 
supremacy of the mind over the body, it is done for- 
ever. For, notwithstanding the assertions of some grum- 
blers, the course of mankind is still upward. Any essen- 
tial improvement in education, now that literature is so 
universally diffused, can never be lost, can never be aban- 
doned, except for a better. We may fly from one extreme 
to another ; from an excess of severity to an excess of 
laxity, and vice versa. 'But we shall move to and fro, 
only because both are wrong. Once place us right, and 
there we shall stay. 

" The great purpose of all good education and disci- 
pline," says Dr. Channing, " is to make a man master of 
himself to excite him to act from a principle in his own 
mind, to lead him to propose his oicn perfection, as his 
supreme law and end." Blessed will be the day which 
19 



218 THE teacher's manual. 

shall see so powerful an engine as the Temperance So- 
ciety devoting its energies to enlighten the community, as 
to the best and easiest mode of developing the most im- 
portant of all the faculties ; when the pulpit, the press, and 
the forum, shall unite, to throw their focal rays on that 
portion of domestic education which teaches how to 
make the rising generation masters of themselves, to give 
the intellectual and moral faculties the supremacy over 
the animal nature ! Meanwhile, let us contribute our 
humble mite, by endeavoring to show^ how the primary 
school may be brought to aid in this noble cause ; and, 
however small our contribution may prove, if it should 
be found of any value, may we not hope for its extension 
and improvement by abler pens.]* 

The only sure method, of acquiring the habit of self- 
control, is by practice in early youth. Opportunities of 
self-denial must be sought out, and youth must be encour- 
aged to practise it daily. Such practice, however, to 
be useful, must be entirely voluntary ; and children should 
be led, as soon as possible, to undertake it, without 
prompting. Every example met with, in the course of 
their reading, should be minutely examined and dwelt on, 
and the pupil should be asked, whether he thought he 
could do the like. Many noble instances of this virtue 
are to be found in the history of ancient Rome. The 
pupil should also be encouraged to the endurance of pain, 
by good advice and suitable examples. 

* The following observations are from Dr. A. Combe's admirable 
work on the Physiology of Digestion. " It seems to me that much 
more might be accomplished, if we did not confine ourselves so exclu- 
sively to the mere inculcation of abstinence from intoxicating liquors, 
but concerned ourselves more in improving the general character, as 
the surest road to reformation, and in providing resources, by means 
of which, the reformation, when once effected, might be fully confirm- 
ed. The temperance which is produced by elevation of mind, and an 
improved state of moral feeling, will be not only much more benefi- 
cial in its consequences, but infinitely more proof against temptations, 
than that which is observed merely in fulfilment of a vow ; and, unless 
something be made to come in the place of the enjoyment which is 
withdrawn, the danger of a relapse will continue to be great." May 
we not anticipate, that the delights of literature will supply the place 
of those social enjoyments, so generally connected with the excesses of 
intemperance ? 



MORAL EDUCATION. 219 

The great difficulty, in the acquisition of self-command , 
lies in the commencement. Let a child once feel that he 
can overcome temptation, and he will speedily acquire a 
spirit of confidence, that will enable him to triumph over 
every obstacle. 

Indecision is a species of the moral cowardice, des- 
cribed in the preceding article. He who is subject to it 
may possibly attempt many things, but his wavering mind, 
turned aside by every petty obstacle, can accomplish 
nothing valuable. His place is among the common herd, 
who follow wherever their leader directs. 

10. Forethought. — Want of forethought. — This virtue 
is intimately connected with that of self-control. Neither 
is complete without the other. Some persons may be 
said to live exclusively in and for the present. It is all 
in all to them. They neither look before nor behind. 

Children should be early accustomed to look forward, 
and to make their little sacrifices in view of a greater 
future good. Most of the moral blunders that men com- 
mit, are owing to their affixing too great importance to 
the present moment, and never looking ahead. Let us 
be happy to-day, provided it does not prevent our being 
happy to-morrow, is a maxim founded on true philosophy. 
In the language of the poet, 

" Pleasure, we all agree, is man's chief good ; 
Our only contest, what deserves the name. 
Give pleasure's name to nought, but what has passed 
The authentic seal of reason, which defies 
The tooth of time ; when past, a pleasure still. 
Dearer on trial, lovelier for its age, 
And doubly to be prized, as it promotes 
Our future, while it forms our present, joy. 
Some joys the future overcast, and some 
Throw all their beams that way, and gild the tomb. 
Some joys endear eternity; some give 
Abhorred annihilation dreadful charms. 
Are rival joys contending for thy choice ? 
Consult thy whole existence, and be safe ; 
That oracle will put all doubt to flight." — Young. 

1 1 . Firmness. — Obstinacy.- — The former may be called 
perseverance in a good cause ; the latter, perseverance in 
a wrong one. The man of firmness listens to reason ; 
the obstinate man shuts his ears. 



220 THE teacher's manual. 

12. ^elf-examination^ vigilance. — Carelessness. — 
These virtues have been sufficiently noticed under the 
head of ' The Record.' By vigilance^ is here meant a 
careful watchfulness over one's self. 

13. Industry.— Indolence. — Habits of industry cannot 
be too early formed. But we fear that our primary 
schools have hitherto rather assisted in forming the oppo- 
site habit of indolence. Work while we work, and play 
while we play, should be the motto. Teachers cannot 
be too much on their guard on this subject. The impor- 
tance of cultivating industrious habits in youth, derives 
much force from the consideration, that God could just 
as easily have provided sustenance for us without, as with, 
our cooperation. But where, then, would have been the 
happiness that flows from the numerous virtues dependent 
upon this provision of Nature, such as temperance, hon- 
esty, disinterestedness, benevolence, patriotism, the filial, 
parental, and conjugal, duties, all of which derive their 
very existence from the necessity of laboring for support ? 
But, although industry is undoubtedly a virtue, it may, by 
excess, run into a vice. There are many, who make 
themselves completely the slaves of business ; who seem 
to think, that life was given for the sole purpose of ac- 
quiring and securing property. Such persons make the 
same mistake with the miser ; the only difference is, that 
the latter gloats over his gold, the former, over his houses, 
lands, and other possessions. Both mistake the means 
for the end ; a mistake, by the way, discernible in most 
of the follies of life, and on which a volume might be 
written, without exhausting the subject. Industry, then, 
is to be encouraged and commended ; but it is not to 
be converted into an idol, upon whose altar our health, 
or the whole of our time, is to be sacrificed. A suffi- 
ciency of time should be reserved to ourselves, and 
allowed to others, not only for the performance of our 
duties to God, but for mental recreation and improvement, 
and the cultivation of all the social affections. 

14. Prudence, circumspection. — Imprudence, rashness, 
timidity. — One of the ancient philosophers says, " Begin 
nothing, of which you have not well considered the end." 



MORAL EDUCATION. 221 

'^ Take care of irrevocable deeds." This is the substance 
of these virtues. Early cuhure is here particularly desi- 
ral)le, because both are repugnant to the natural habits 
and feelings of the young. Never fail to apply every 
case that occurs, either in action or in reading,to the table. 

15. Discretion. — Indiscretion. — This virtue is of the 
same nature with those last mentioned, but less in degree. 

16. Vigilance. — Suspicion. — In this connexion, i;i^i- 
lance signifies a watchfulness of the conduct of others. 
It sometimes runs into the extreme of suspicion, which 
is a mean vice. 

17. Providence. — Profusion, prodigality. — Another 
virtue of the same species, but including action. The 
bee, the ant, and the beaver, are provident. This virtue 
is also intimately connected with those in numbers 9 and 
10, — Self-control and Forethought. Each is necessary to 
the perfection of the others. 

18. Perseverance. — Irresolution, instability. — Youth 
has, naturally, more courage than perseverance. It is prone 
to idolize genius, and to despise pains-taking, plodding 
industry. It wants to accomplish, in a short period, en- 
terprises which require much time ; and to effect, by one 
brilliant achievement, objects which cost others many 
painful efforts. But this is contrary to the laws of Na- 
ture. All that is great, and noble, and lasting, is the re- 
sult of time, and persevering resolution. He who expects 
it will be otherwise in his own case, will, in general, be 
miserably disappointed. He may have courage to grap- 
ple with the greatest difficulties for a moment ; but, if 
he has not resolution to struggle with them as long as 
they stand in his path, he must be content with obscurity. 

Property may be gained by speculation, or by fraud ; 
but, when acquired in this way, it is, often, soon scattered. 
In gaining an estate by patient industry, a man usually 
forms economical and thrifty habits, which keep hita from 
squandering what he has gotten. His mind becomes grad- 
ually suited to his change of circumstances, and he does 
not launch out into extravagant and ruinous expenses. 
But, when a man grows rich by some lucky speculation, 
or in some similar way, he is not prepared to bear this 
19* 



222 

sudden change of circumstances. He is too much elated 
by prosperity. He is apt to feel, that there is no end to 
his riches. He thinks there is, in his case, no need of 
economy, it is so easy to get money. As the proverb 
says, "Light come, light go." He ventures upon ex- 
penses which are beyond his income, and is soon reduced 
to want. Or, perhaps, his successful speculation has made 
him feel that the gains of industry and economy are too 
slow ; that others may plod on in the old road of frugali- 
ty and labor, but he will take a shorter and easier road to 
wealth. So he runs other hazards ; but fails in his cal- 
culations. Grown desperate by disappointment, he ven- 
tures on other schemes, still more hazardous, and plunges 
into ruin. 

God often so orders events, that estates, gotten by 
grinding the poor and the fatherless, or by defrauding 
creditors, are soon wasted. Sometimes, the same love 
of display, or the same ambition, which causes persons 
to be dishonest, leads them to a style of living beyond 
their means. Sometimes they resort to the bottle, for 
relief from the stings of conscience, become intemperate, 
make bad bargains, spend their property, and die beggars. 
And, even if they continue to keep their money, they often 
do not enjoy it. They find they are neither loved nor 
respected by their neighbors and acquaintance ; and that 
even the poor, honest man holds a higher station in soci- 
ety than they. 

As, then, perseverance is not, naturally, the virtue of 
youth, it is the more incumbent on instructers to take 
efficient measures for exciting and promoting it. The 
words, " Try ; try again ;" should be inscribed in some 
conspicuous situation in the schoolroom, and the pupil's 
attention directed to them, in every case of difficulty. 
Perhaps the following lines might be found useful, if 
committed to memory by the school ; and, still better, 
if the words were arranged to appropriate music, and 
occasionally sung. The two following illustrations might 
also be read and commented on, and followed up by 
others, drawn from history and biography. This object 
should also be kept in view, in the study of arithmetic, 



MORAL EDUCATION. 223 

and other branches of mathematics, and the languages. 
The teacher should avoid giving assistance or explana- 
tions too readily, but rather lead the student to finding 
out for himself, by appropriate questions ; thus bringing 
intellectual training to aid in the formation of the moral 
character. The opposite vices, irresolution and insta- 
bility^ refer, the former, to a wavering before action, the 
latter, to the too easy abandonment of useful projects. 

TRY, TRY AGAIN. 

' Tis a lesson you should heed. 

Try, try again ; 
If at first you do n't succeed. 

Try, try again ; 
Then your courage should appear, 
For, if you will persevere. 
You will conquer, never fear ; 

Try, try again. 

Once, or twice, though you should fail, 

Try, try again ; 
If you would, at last, prevail, 

_ Try, try again ; 
If we strive, 'tis no disgrace. 
Though we may not win the race ; 
What should you do in the case? 

Try, try again. 

If you find your task is hard. 

Try, try again ; 
Time will bring you your reward. 

Try, try again ; 
All that other folks can do, 
Why, with patience, should not you ? 
Only keep this rule in view, 

Try, try again. 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE VIRTUE OF PERSEVERANCE. 

1. TiMouR THE Tartar was once forced to take shel- 
ter from his enemies in a ruined building, where he sat 
alone, for many hours. To divert his mind from his 
hopeless condition, he fixed his observation on a little 
ant, that was carrying a grain of corn, larger than itself, 
up a high wall. He numbered the efforts it made to ac- 



224 THE teacher's manual. 

complish this object. The grain fell sixty-nine times to 
the ground, but the insect persevered, and, the seventieth 
time, it reached the top of the wall. This sight gave 
him courage at the moment it was most needed, and he 
never forgot the lesson it conveyed. 

A somewhat similar story is related of Robert Bruce 
and a spider, in Scott's ' Tales of a Grandfather,' vol. I. 

2. Edmund Stone was an eminent mathematician, 
who lived about a century ago. His father was garden- 
er to the Duke of Argyle, who, walking one day in his 
garden, observed a Latin copy of Newton's 'Principia' 
lying on the grass, and, thinking it must have been brought 
from his own library, called some one to take it back to 
its place. Upon this, Stone, who was then in his eigh- 
teenth year, claimed the book as his own. "Yours?" 
rephed the Duke, '' do you understand geometry, Latin, 
and Newton ?" "I know a little of them," rephed the 
young man. The Duke was surprised ; and, having a 
taste for the sciences, he entered into conversation with 
the young mathematician. He asked him several ques- 
tions, and was astonished at the force, the accuracy, and 
the candor of his answers. '' But how," said the Duke, 
"came you by the knowledge of all these things ?" Stone 
rephed, " A servant taught me, ten years since, to read. 
Does one need to know any thing more than the twenty- 
four letters, in order to know every thing else that one 
wishes ?" The Duke's curiosity redoubled : he sat 
down on a bank, and requested a detail of the whole 
process by which he had become so learned. " I first 
learned to read," said Stone ; " the masons were then 
at work upon your house. I approached them one day, 
and observed that the architect used a rule and compas- 
ses, and that he made calculations. I inquired what might 
be the meaning and use of these things, and I was in- 
formed that there was a science called arithmetic. I 
purchased a book of arithmetic, and I learned it. I was 
told there was another science, called geometry. I bought 
the necessary books, and I learned geometry. By read- 
ing, I found that there were good books in these two sci- 
ences, in Latin. I bought a [grammar and] dictionary, 



MORAL EDUCATION. 225 

and I learned Latin. I understood, also, that there were 
good books of the same kind in French. I bought a 
[grammar and] dictionary, and I learned French. And 
this, my lord, is what I have done. It seems to me 
that we may learn every thing, when we know the twen- 
ty-four letters of the alphabet." 

19. Economy. — Carelessness, extravagance, niggard- 
liness. — Economy has not unreasonably been ranked 
among the virtues ; for, like the others, it implies self- 
control, and is productive of the happiest consequences. 
The good education of children, physical, intellectual, and 
moral ; the careful attendance of old age ; the calmness 
of mind, so necessary to the good conduct of middle life ; 
and that independence of circumstances, which alone can 
completely secure against mercenary motives, are all re- 
ferrible to this quality. Lessons of carefulness and econ- 
omy cannot be too often repeated in our schools ; for the 
contrary habits of carelessness and wastefulness, notwith- 
standing all the advantages this nation enjoys, have already 
done immense mischief. Many families waste and throw 
away nearly as much as they use ; probably one third 
of the expense of housekeeping might be saved by sys- 
tem and frugality. The teacher, however, should be 
careful to draw the Hne distinctly between economy and 
niggardliness ; between the frugal man and the miser. 
" There is," saith Solomon, " that scattereth, and yet 
increaseth ; and there is that withholdeth more than is 
meet, but it tendeth to poverty." The picture presented 
to the child should be, not the miser, denying himself 
the means of living ; but the farmer and mechanic, ena- 
bled, by the assistance of the capital arising from his 
economical habits, to acquire a constantly-increasing meas- 
ure of leisure, and of the comforts of life, with a decreas- 
ing amount of labor. 

20. Temperance. — Intemperance. — Excessive indul- 
gence in sensual pleasures, of any kind, is not merely in- 
jurious by the positive evil it creates. It not only destroys 
the health, and has an injurious influence on the capacity 
for usefulness, but it destroys the taste for intellectual 
pleasures, and has a fatal effect on every virtuous habit. 



226 THE teacher's manual. 

He, who has abandoned himself to sensual pleasures, has 
weakened every faculty of his mind, and has rendered 
himself, in a greater or less degree, incapable of resisting 
any seduction from moral good. Man, however, is con- 
tinually liable to run into extremes. In avoiding one spe- 
cies of intemperance, we should beware of going too far, 
of passing the bounds of temperance, and returning to the 
same vice, on another tack. Temperance signifies mod- 
eration : both of the opposite extremes are intemperance. 
There are two species of this vice, however, in which it is 
impossible to run into an extreme, and from both of which 
youth need an especial warning in early life. These are, 
the use of tobacco, in any shape, and drinking, not for 
nourishment, but for pleasure. The pernicious effects of 
habits of this nature have been so repeatedly and fully 
pointed out, that no teacher can want instruction on these 
points. Only let it be remembered, that prevention is 
better than cure. Wait not for the appearance of the 
evil, before the warning is given. In many cases, it may 
then be too late. 

It is the great error of mankind, that, in the pursuit of 
happiness, they commonly seek for it in violent gratifica- 
tions, in pleasures too intense in their degree to be of 
long duration, and of which even the frequent repetition 
blunts the capacity of enjoyment. There is no lesson 
more useful to mankind, than that which teaches, that the 
most rational happiness is averse from all turbulent emo- 
tions ; that it is serene and moderate in its nature ; that 
its ingredients are neither costly in the acquisition, nor 
difficult in the attainment, but present themselves almost 
voluntarily to a well-ordered mind, and are open to every 
rank and condition of life, where absolute indigence is 
excluded. 

Man is possessed of a twofold nature. Like the infe- 
rior creatures, he has pleasure in eating, drinking, sleep- 
ing, and exercising his limbs ; and one of the greatest 
obstacles to improvement is, that most of the race are 
contented with these enjoyments, and consider it painful 
to be compelled to seek higher sources of gratification. 
But to man's animal nature have been added, by a boun- 



MORAL EDUCATION. 227 

tiful Creator, moral sentiments and reflecting faculties, 
which not only place him above all other creatures on 
earth, but constitute him a different being from any of 
them,-— a rational and accountable creature. These fac- 
ulties are his highest and his best gifts, and the sources 
of his purest and most intense pleasures. They lead him, 
directly, to the great objects of his existence, obedience 
to God and love to his fellow-men. But this peculiarity 
attends them, that, while his animal faculties act powerful- 
ly of themselves, his rational faculties require to be culti- 
vated, exercised, and instructed, before they will yield 
their full harvest of enjoyment. 

The intellectual pleasures have this peculiar and su- 
perlative advantage over those that are merely sensual, 
that the most delightful of the former require no appro- 
priation of their objects in order to their enjoyment. The 
contemplative man, who is an admirer of the beauties of 
Nature, has an ideal property in all its objects. He en- 
joys the hill, the vale, the stream, the wood, the garden, 
with a pleasure more exquisite, because more unalloyed, 
than that of their actual possessor. To him, each enjoy- 
ment is heightened by the sense of that unremitting boun- 
ty which furnishes it ; nor is he disquieted by the anxiety 
of maintaining a possession of which he cannot be de- 
prived. How truly may he exclaim with the poet : 

" I care not, Fortune, what you me deny ; 
You cannot rob me of free Nature's grace ; 
You cannot shut the windows of the sky. 
Through which Aurora shows her brightening face ; 
You cannot bar my constant feet to trace 
The woods and lawns, by living streams, at eve ; 
Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace. 
And I their toys to the great children leave ; 
Of fancy, reason, virtue, nought can me bereave." 

Castle of Indolence. 

21. Contentment. — Discontent. — ''When a lad, an 
old gentleman took the trouble to teach me some little 
knowledge of the world. With this view, I remember, 
he one day asked me. When is a man rich enough ? I 
replied, when he has a thousand pounds. He said. No. 
Two thousand ? No. Ten thousand ? No. Twenty 



228 

thousand ? No. A hundred thousand ? which I thought 
would settle the business ; but he still continued to say, 
No. I gave it up, and confessed I could not tell ; but 
begged he would inform me. He gravely said, lohen he 
has a little more than he has, and that is, — never ! If he 
acquires one thousand, he wishes to have two thousand ; 
then five, then ten, then twenty, then fifty ; from that his 
riches would amount to an hundred thousand ; and so on, 
till he had grasped the whole world ; after which he would 
look about him, like Alexander, and weep for other worlds 
to possess." 

But there are other causes of discontent, besides those 
arising from our circumstances. And, perhaps, one of 
the most prominent of these relates to the weather. It 
is either too hot or too cold, too wet or too dry. But it 
is not Nature that mistakes about the, weather, but our- 
selves. What sort of effect would it produce in the world, 
if such things were regulated by falhble human perception 
of what is best } Could we trust them in any other per- 
son's hands, or would any person trust them in ours ? 
The following just remarks are extracted from the philo- 
sophical lectures of the late Dr. Smith, of Princeton, N. 
J. "It has been frequently and justly remarked, that 
the universe is governed by general and constant laws, 
which never change their operation according to the de- 
sires of men, or convenience of particular parts of the 
system, which sometimes appear to be productive of ac- 
cidental and partial ills. A tempest here, a drought there, 
a contagion, or an earthquake, may involve individuals in 
distress ; but the fixed and unvarying laws of the physical 
world are among the greatest blessings to mankind. 
Among other benefits, they lay a foundation for the ex- 
istence of the most useful sciences, which could have no 
principles on which to rest in a providence of expedients 
and accommodations to individual convenience. They 
serve to awaken inquiry ; to exercise ingenuity ; to en- 
courage industry ; to afford principles on which to ground 
a prudent foresight and precaution, and to promote the 
exercise of all the virtues which are assisted by the sta- 
bility of Nature." 



MORAL EDUCATION. 229 

Another fertile source of discontent is the supposed in- 
equality and mystery attending the dealings of Providence. 
But such appearances will vanish, when the general laws 
of Nature are properly scanned. These laws may be 
divided into three great classes, — physical, organic, and 
moral, — each of which operates independently of the oth- 
er two. Each requires obedience to itself. Each, in its 
own specific way, rewards obedience, and punishes diso- 
bedience. And happiness can be attained, solely, by obe- 
dience to all these Divine institutions. If we neglect, or 
attempt to counteract, the physical and organic laws, we 
shall suffer for our folly, however pure and noble may be 
our moral conduct. And, on the other hand, however 
attentive we may be to the laws which govern our frame, 
we can never be happy, if our moral and intellectual nature 
be neglected. Let us suppose, for instance, tliat of two 
vessels, sailing from the same port, at the same time, and 
for the same island in the Pacific, one, which was entirely 
unseaworthy, had on board, missionaries, who had sacri- 
ficed all their prospects for the service of God, and the 
best interests of the human race ; while the other was 
laden with rum, and manned with monsters of iniquity. 
Could it be considered a mystery, if the same hurricane 
which sent the unseaworthy missionary ship to the bottom, 
should carry the sound vessel, with its lading of iniquity, 
safely, to its destined port ? Again : would it imply any 
mystery or inequality in the ways of God, should a man, 
who observed the rules of temperance and of exercise, 
enjoy robust health, and attain a green old age, although 
he might cheat, lie, and blaspheme ; while another, who 
violated these rules, should suffer constant pain and sick- 
ness, and sink into a premature grave, however pure and 
holy his conduct ? Certainly not. If we violate the phys- 
ical and organic laws, we shall receive the appropriate 
punishments of pain, sickness, and premature death, as 
certainly as we shall suffer from violations of the moral 
code. To be happy, we must fulfil all the laws to which 
our Divine Governor has subjected us. And the punish- 
ment annexed to a breach of the one, imphes no more 
20 



230 THE teacher's manual. 

mystery or instability, than those annexed to a breach of 
the others. 

Let our teachers, then, and, more especially, our pri- 
mary teachers, endeavor to check this too prevalent dis- 
position to discontent, by their own example, and by im- 
proving every suitable occasion of exposing its folly and 
unreasonableness. They will thus much increase the stock 
of happiness ; for, although apparently trifling, the occa- 
sions of discontent occur so frequently, as to form, in the 
aggregate, a large mass, which must have a material effect 
on the happiness of society. 

22. Modesty. — Indelicacy. — What a beautiful trait in 
all, but especially in the female sex, is modesty ! and how 
disgusting the opposite vice ! But modesty does not con- 
sist, as some appear to imagine, in the choice of words. 
On the contrary, too great a fastidiousness in expression 
betokens rather a want of delicacy in ideas. Fortunately, 
this kind of folly is fast wearing out, through the example 
and influence of such writers as Mrs. Barbauld and Miss 
Edgeworth, who, in their valuable writings for youth, al- 
ways give to every thing its proper name, without peri- 
phrasis. It is truly laughable, to observe how far this sort 
of squeamishness can be carried. Of some species of 
animals, it is considered an outrage against decency to 
pronounce the name of the male ; of others, that of the 
female ; of others, again, the names of neither male nor 
female are admissible ; while, strange to say, there are 
many, of which the names of neither sex are offensive. 
AH such follies flow from false dehcacy. They are the 
very reverse of modesty, which consists in purity of ideas. 

23. Patience, fortitude. — Impatience, pusillanimity. — 
These two virtues bear such a resemblance to each oth- 
er, as to allow of being included in one article. Both 
signify a virtuous endurance of pain and assaults. The 
former has more relation to time, than the latter. 

24. Calmness, serenity, cheerfulness. — Irritability, 
fretfulness, gloom, despondency. — These pleasant states 
of mind, are the results and rewards of the other virtues 
that have been noticed. Speaking of the opposite vices 
of fretfulness, &c., SuUivan, in his ' Moral Class-book,' 



MORAL EDUCATION. 231 

says, ^' Many persons pass much of their time in a state 
of inquietude and constant irritation, although they are in 
health, and have the means of satisfying the common wants 
of life, and even abundantly. As to the present, they have 
some unreasonable desire, which cannot be satisfied ; or 
which cannot be, without causing a suffering more intol- 
erable than the unsatisfied desire. As to the past, they 
dwell on the memory of some good, which they think might 
have been obtained ; or on some wrong or blunder, by 
which some good was lost. As to the future, they dread 
some possible evil, and the more, because of the uncer- 
tainty of its nature, and of the time and manner of its 
coming, and which may never come. There are many 
persons, who are habitually discontented. They find ev- 
ery thing goes wrong. The weather is bad ; their food 
is not as they would have it ; no one does any thing in 
the right time, or right manner ; or that is done, which 
should not be ; or that is omitted, which should be done. 
Such persons are always groaning, sighing, or grumbling. 
They dislike every body, and every body dislikes them." 
With respect to those persons, whose fretfulness and 
gloom arise from their circumstances and station, Mrs. 
Barbauld, in her Essay against ' Inconsistency in our Ex- 
pectations,' has presented some views, which are well 
worthy of their consideration, " We should consider the 
world," says she, " as a great mart of commerce, where 
fortune exposes to our view various commodities, — rich- 
es, ease, tranquillity, fame, integrity, knowledge. Every 
thing is marked at a settled price. Our time, our labor, 
our ingenuity, are so much ready money, which we are to 
lay out to the best advantage. Examine, compare, choose, 
reject ; but stand to your own judgment ; and do not, 
like children, when you have purchased one thing, repine 
that you do not possess another, which you did not pur- 
chase. Such is the force of well-regulated industry, that 
a steady and vigorous exertion of our faculties, directed 
to one end, will generally insure success. Would you, 
for instance, be rich ? Do you think that single point 
worth the sacrificing every thing else to ? You may then 
be rich. Thousands have become so, from the lowest 



232 THE teacher's manual. 

beginnings, by toil, and patient diligence, and attention to 
the minutest articles of expense and profit. But you must 
give up the pleasures of leisure, of a vacant mind, of a 
free, unsuspicious temper. If you preserve your integri- 
ty, it must be a coarse-spun and vulgar honesty. Those 
high and lofty notions of morals, which you brought with 
you from the schools, must be considerably lowered, and 
mixed with the baser alloy of a jealous and worldly-mind- 
ed prudence. You must learn to do hard, if not unjust, 
things ; and, for the nice embarrassments of a delicate and 
ingenuous spirit, it is necessary for you to get rid of them 
as fast as possible. You must shut your heart against 
the Muses, and be content to feed your understanding 
with plain, household truths. In short, you must not at- 
tempt to enlarge your ideas, or pohsh your taste, or refine 
your sentiments ; but must keep on, in one beaten track, 
without turning aside, either to the right hand or to the 
left. ' But I cannot submit to drudgery like this. I feel 
a spirit above it.' 'Tis well : be above it, then ; only 
do not repine that you are not rich. 

" Is knowledge the pearl of price ? That, too, may be 
purchased, by steady application, and long, solitary hours 
of study and reflection. Bestow these, and you shall be 
wise. ' But,' says the man of letters, ' what a hardship 
is it, that many an illiterate fellow, who cannot construe 
the motto of the arras on his coach, shall raise a fortune, 
and make a figure, while I have little more than the com- 
mon conveniences of life !' Et tihi magna satis ! Was 
it in order to raise a fortune, that you consumed the spright- 
ly hours of youth in study and retirement ? Was it to 
be rich, that you grew pale over the midnight lamp, and 
distilled the sweetness from the Greek and Roman spring ? 
You have, then, mistaken your path, and ill-employed 
your industry. ' What reward have I, then, for all my 
labors .-*' What reward ! A large, comprehensive soul, 
well purged from vulgar fears, and perturbations, and 
prejudices ; able to comprehend and interpret the works 
of man, — of God. A rich, cultivated, flourishing mind, 
pregnant with inexhaustible stores of entertainment and 
reflection. A perpetual spring of fresh ideas ; and the 



MORAL EDUCATION. 233 

conscious dignity of superior intelligence. Good heaven ! 
and what reward can you ask besides ? 

^' ' But, is it not some reproach upon the economy of 
Providence, that such a one, who is a mean, dirty fellow, 
should have amassed wealth enough to buy half a nation ?' 
Not in the least. He made himself a mean, dirty fellow, 
for that very end. He has paid his health, his conscience, 
his liberty, for it ; and will you envy him his bargain ? 
Will you hang your head, and blush, in his presence, be- 
cause he outshines you in equipage and show ? Lift up 
your brow with a noble confidence, and say to yourself, 
1 have not these things, it is true ; but it is because I 
have not sought, because I have not desired, them ; it is 
because I possess something better. I have chosen my 
lot ; I am content and satisfied. 

" You are a modest man ; you love quiet and indepen- 
dence, and have a delicacy and reserve in your temper, 
which renders it impossible for you to elbow your way 
in the world, and be the herald of your own merits. Be 
content, then, with a modest retirement, with the esteem 
of your intimate friends, with the praises of a blameless 
heart, and a delicate, ingenuous spirit ; but resign the 
splendid distinctions of the world, to those who can bet- 
ter scramble for them. 

'^ The man, whose tender sensibihty of conscience, and 
strict regard to the rules of morality, make him scrupulous 
and fearful of offending, is often heard to complain of the 
disadvantages he hes under, in every path of honor and 
profit. ' Could I but get over some nice points, and 
conform to the practice and opinion of those about me, I 
might stand as fair a chance as others for dignities and 
preferment !' And why can you not ? What hinders 
you from discarding this troublesome scrupulosity of 
yours, which stands so grievously in your way ? If it be 
a small thing to enjoy a healthful mind, sound at the very 
core, that does not shrink from the keenest inspection ; 
inward freedom from remorse and perturbation ; unsullied 
whiteness and simplicity of manners ; a genuine integ- 
rity, 

* Pure, in the last recesses of the mind ;' 
20* 



234 

if you think these advantages an inadequate recompense 
for what you resign : dismiss your scruples this instant, 
and be a slave-merchant, a parasite, or, — what you 
please." 

To those whose gloom arises from more general views 
of life, the following verses, from an Enghsh periodical, 
may suggest wiser and more correct sentiments : 

THE WORLD. 

'* Talk who will of the world as a desert of thrall, 
Yet, yet, there is bloom on the waste ; 
Though the chalice of life hath its acid and gall, 
There are honey drops, too, for the taste. 

*« We murmur and droop, should a sorrow-cloud stay. 
And note all the shades of our lot ; 
But the rich scintillations that brighten our way, 
Are basked in, enjoyed, axiA forgot. 

"Those who look on mortality's ocean aright 
Will not moan o'er each billow that rolls, 
But dwell on the glories, the beauties, the might, 
As much as the shipwrecks and shoals. 

*' How thankless is he, who remembers alone 
All the bitter, the drear, and the dark I 
Though the raven may scare, with its wo-boding tone. 
Do we ne'er hear the song of the lark ? 

•' We may utter farewell, when 'tis torture to part ; 
But, in meeting the dear one again, 
Have we never rejoiced, with that wildness of heart. 
Which outbalances ages of pain ? 

" Who hath not had moments so laden with bliss. 
When the soul, in its fulness of love. 
Would waver, if bidden to choose between, thb 
And the Paradise promised above ? 

** Though the eye may be dimmed with its grief-drop awhile. 
And the whitened lip sigh forth its fear. 
Yet pensive, indeed, is that face, where the smile 
Is not oftener seen than the tear. ^ 

** There are times when the storm-gust may rattle around ; 
There are spots where the poison-shrub grows ; 
Yet are there not hours when nought else can be found 
But the south wind, the sunshine, and rose ? 

•' O haplessly rare is the portion that's ours, 
And strange is the path that we take. 



MORAL EDUCATION. 235 

If there spring not beside us a few precious flowers, 
To soften the thorn and the brake. 

*' The wail of regret, the rude clashing of strife, 
The soul's harmony often may mar ; 
But I think we must own, in the discords of life, 
'Tis ourselves that oft waken the jar. 

•' Earth is not all fair, yet it is not all gloom ; 
And the voice of the grateful will tell, 
That He who allotted Pain, Death, and the Tomb, 
Gave Hope, Health, and the Bridal as well. 

•* Should fate do its worst, and my spirit, oppressed. 
O'er its own shattered happiness pine. 
Let me witness the joy in another's glad breast, 
And some pleasure must kindle in mine. 

*' Then say not the world is a desert of thrall; 
There is bloom, there is light on the waste, 
Though the chalice of life hath its acid and gall. 
There are honey-drops, too, for the taste." 

25. Self-respect^ humility. — Pride j vanity., haughti- 
nesSj love of dominion, conceit, pedantry. — Self-respect 
is not a very happy term for this trait of character. It 
means such a sense of the dignity of man's nature, as will 
be an effectual preservative against its debasement. '' A 
due sense of the dignity of man," says Dr. Young, in the 
' Centaur not Fabulous,' '' evidently includes the whole of 
our duty. It inspires high veneration and great gratitude 
to God who gave it ; it inspires a reverence for ourselves, 
which is of the utmost moment to our character and 
peace ; and it inspires a proper regard for all mankind, 
as equal sharers in it ; which regard would prevent infin- 
ite mischief, and banish half the miseries of life." Self- 
respect always looks forward, never behind. It looks 
upward, to a high standard of perfection, which it has 
formed in its own mind, and towards which it continually 
strives with all its energies. When we do look back on 
our course, it should be with humility ; it should be to 
compare our doings with the standard we have set be- 
fore us. Our feeling should be, not pride, that we have 
done so much, but mortification, that we have so far fal- 
len short, and determined resolution to do better, in future. 
Haughtiness is the abuse of the sentiment of self-respect. 



236 THE teacher's manual. 

It looks on the rest of mankind as inferior, instead of joint 
occupants of the dignified station in which God has plac- 
ed us. Love of dominion requires no explanation. Van- 
ity^ conceit^ and pedantry refer to displays of our fancied 
gifts or acquirements. Vanity commonly relates to the 
body, conceit, to the mind ; pedantry is a boastful display 
of learning. All three are disgusting, and can only ex- 
cite contempt. 

26. Desire of excellence. — Jealousy.) envy. — He, who 
possesses this virtue, desires to be elevated, but not by 
the depression of others. His object is the improvement 
of his own mind. The jealous and the envious also de- 
sire to rise, but it is at the expense of their neighbors, 
whose acquirements and possessions are to them a source 
of pain. Desire of excellence is a source of happiness ; 
jealousy and envy, of nothing but wretchedness. 

27. Simplicity. — Bashf nines s., affectation., ostentation. 
— These quahties relate to manners. Simplicity of man- 
ners arises from a proper degree of humility. Its pos- 
sessor is not puffed up with ideas of his own consequence. 
Bashfulness^ affectation, and ostentation., all spring from 
the same root, — too much self-contemplation, and over- 
weening ideas of our own consequence. 

28. Neatness. — Foppery., love of display. — ^These 
traits relate, chiefly, to clothing and furniture. They are 
intimately connected with those in the last article, exhib- 
iting nearly the same state of mind. 

29. Docility. — Indocility. — Docility., or teachable- 
ness, always accompanies true knowledge. The more 
one knows, the clearer he sees his own deficiencies, and 
the more anxious he will be to remove them. On the 
contrary, the ignorant are indocile, having generally a 
high opinion of their own acquirements. 

30. Obedient temper. — Impatience of control. — The 
obedient and tractable child is beloved by all, and is in 
the surest way of acquiring wisdom ; whereas impatience 
of control leads to innumerable evils. In adult age, the 
virtuous trait appears in a conformity to the laws of God 
and of our country. 



MORAL EDUCATION. 237 

III. Duties to Others. 

Sec. I. Justice. 

31. Truth. — Falsehood^ perjury. — Truth is one of 
the most important of the virtues. A man of truth is 
one who is true to his God, to himself, to his fellow-men. 
This is not a mere verbal nicety. Does not the man 
who is unfaithful to his duties practically deny, though 
not in express words, his obligations to perform them ? 
A liar is the most despicable and wretched of all charac- 
ters. Even the lowest and most depraved consider 
themselves disgraced, when charged with the guilt of ly- 
ing. How important, then, how sacred, is the duty of 
training youth in a strict regard to truth ! [And yet, how 
sadly defective the practice ! In many families, nay, 
may we not say in most, the whole system of family gov- 
ernment is founded upon hes. Children are cheated in 
their amusements, in their food, and in their dress. If a 
child has to take physic, he is told that it is something 
good for him to drink ; if reluctant, he is told that his 
mother will go and leave him, or that he shall be sent 
away, or some other such lie. Sooner or later, all these 
will infallibly be discovered to be deceptions by the child, 
and then, what must be his moral impressions, when he 
finds that his parents, who almost stand to him in the 
place of the Deity, pay no regard to truth .'' Another 
fertile source of mischief is the practice of pacifying 
children with promises never performed, nay, in many 
cases, never intended to be performed. If it be neces- 
sary, for instance, to take any thing from them, they are 
reconciled by the promise of something else, a promise 
which is instantly forgotten, as a matter of no consequence. 
But it is a matter of the very first consequence. Chil- 
dren are the very last persons to whom promises should 
be broken, because they cannot comprehend the reasons, 
if any there be, why they are not kept. Such promises 
should be scrupulously redeemed, though at a great incon- 
venience, and even when inadvertently made ; for the 
child's moral habit is of infinitely more importance than 



238 THE teacher's manual. 

any such inconvenience can be to the parent. Another 
most injurious practice is the exaction of promises from 
children. When a child acts improperly, the uniform 
course, both of parents and children, is to demand, on 
pain of punishment, a promise of better behavior. But, 
if the consequences were better considered, this would 
be the last course that would be adopted. For, as it is 
almost certain, from the thoughtlessness and forgetfulness 
natural to childhood, that this promise will be broken, 
we are thus leading him into a hahit of disregarding his 
pledged word. Besides, it is wholly unnecessary. When 
does a law or a lawgiver require a promise of obedience ? 
Never. The question to a child, if any be necessary, 
when he has acted wrong, should be, Are you good now ^ 
not, Will you be good ? Let us, then, consider it an 
undeviating rule, that promises are never to be exacted 
from children ; but that, on the contrary, they are to be 
discouraged from offering them hghtly and inconsiderately. 
As soon as they are of a fit age to understand it, the 
sacred nature of a promise ought to be explained to them, 
and they should be advised, rarely thus to pledge their 
honor ; but, when their word has once passed, to hold it 
inviolate as an oath. What a beneficial change would 
the general adoption of such a rule produce in society ! 
what a mass of evil would it not prevent ! and what pos- 
sible inconvenience could it produce !] 

32. Sincerity. — Exaggeration, deceit. — There are 
many persons, who, although they would scruple to tell 
a direct falsehood, yet have no hesitation in using lan- 
guage which may convey a false impression. This is 
deceit, the opposite of sincerity, which avoids every 
means of deceiving, whether by silence, speech, or ac- 
tion. He only is the man of truth, who will not inten- 
tionally/ deceive in any manner, whatever. There is 
another species of falsehood, which is but too prevalent, 
namely, the spirit of exaggeration, by which circumstances 
are magnified or lessened. So general is this practice, 
that we can place but httle dependence upon facts, not 
received from first hand. " Accustom your children," 
says Dr. Johnson, '' constantly to this : if a thing hap- 



MORAL EDUCATION. 239 

pened at one window, and they, when relating it, say that 
it happened at another, do not let it pass, but instantly 
check them ; you do not know where deviation from 
truth will end. It is more from carelessness about truth, 
than from intentional lying, that there is so much falsehood 
in the world. Some men relate what they think, as what 
they know : some men, of confused memories and habit- 
ual inaccuracy, ascribe to one man what belongs to 
another ; and some talk on, without thought or care. A 
{ew men are sufficient to broach falsehoods, which are 
afterwards innocently diffused by successive relaters." 
The habit of exact attention, which an improved state of 
intellectual education will, it is to be hoped, render gen- 
eral, will materially assist in abating this serious evil. 
But an improved state of morals is necessary to its com- 
plete removal. 

33. Integrity. — Dishonesty, — These require no labored 
explanation. It is sufficiently evident, that " Honesty is 
the best pohcy," and that " the way of the transgressor," 
in this respect, " is hard.'''' 

34. Fidelity. — Unfaithfulness. — Although there are 
^QVf., making any pretension to character, who would 
steals yet too many are unscrupulous in betraying their 
trust. A " breach of trust," however, though considered 
venial, in the eye of the law,* will ever be considered 
stealing by every honorable man. 

35. Conscientiousness ; respect for the property or 
rights of others. — Want of ditto. — Very young children 
have no idea of the nature of property. This ought to 
be explained to them as soon as possible ; and, in order 
to induce proper habits, they ought never to be allowed 
to handle any thing belonging to their brothers and sisters, 
without leave. The nature of the right to property held 
in common still more needs explanation. For instance, 
the rights of others are infringed, when the common 

* The object of the law, ia refusing to punish, criminally, breaches 
of trust, is doubtless to render men more cautious in their mercantile 
transactions. Were it otherwise, a looseness in the mode of conduct- 
ing business would become general, as the law would be depended on 
for that care, which men themselves ought to exercise, thus immensely 
increasing the serious evil of litigation. 



240 

property vested in schoolhouses, and other public build- 
ings, is injured ; or by the destruction of milestones, 
guideboards, &c. On the continent of Europe, this 
wanton spirit of destruction is said to be totally unknown. 
In the large cities, there are numerous pubHc institutions 
of great utility, such as botanic gardens, collections of 
paintings and statuary, &c., open to the public, indiscrim- 
inately, which could not exist in our country, owing to the 
prevalent barbarous habit of destructiveness. An Amer- 
ican traveller through Europe, observing, one day, an oc- 
casional wisp of straw tied around the fruit-trees that 
hned the road, inquired the reason from a fellow-travel- 
ler. " This is done by the owners," replied he, "to 
show that they bear a superior kind of fruit, which they 
wish to reserve for themselves." " Is it possible ?" re- 
turned the American ; "in our country, such a mark 
would insure their destruction." " What," resumed the 
stranger, " have you no schools in your country ?" 

36. Impartiality. — Partiality. — This virtue and vice 
are confined to adults. It relates to the conduct of pa- 
rents towards their children, or of judges, and other public 
officers. It is inserted in the Table, because it may be 
necessary to refer to it, in the course of reading. 

Sec. II. BENEvoLEifCE. 

37. Social affections : viz. Conjugal, parental, filial^ 
and fraternal love ; friendship. — Perfidy. — Conjugal 
love relates to the mutual affection of husband and wife ; 
parental love, to the affection of parents to their children. 
As they have reference merely to adults, it is unnecessa- 
ry to speak of them here. Filial love is the affection 
of children to parents, of which obedience is the fruit. 
Children owe their parents a debt which can never be 
paid. More helpless than the young of any other animal, 
children, for months and years, have been the objects of 
unremitting care. What anxious days, what sleepless 
nights, have they occasioned, which nothing could have 
supported but the most ardent love ! How endless, then, 
the debt of gratitude ? But obedience is not less the 
interest than the duty of children. Where can they find 



MORAL EDUCATION. 241 

a friend like a parent ? Whose counsels will be so 
wholly disinterested ? Besides, so kindly has our Crea- 
tor arranged our constitution, that we gain rather than 
lose, by the voluntary payment of such debts. 

" A grateful mind, 

By owing, owes not ; but still pays, at once 

Indebted and discharged ; what burden, then ?" — Milton. 

Perhaps nothing can exibit this beautiful truth, in a more 
striking point of view, than the following circumstance, 
which occurred in France a few years ago. 

In Paris, there is an institution, called the Household 
Hospital, into which aged widows and widowers are ad- 
mitted, on payment of about two hundred dollars each, 
which secures them a room, and meat, drink, clothing, 
firing, pocket-money to the amount of about one dollar 
and fifty cents a month for the remainder of their days, 
and burial at their close. For a married couple, to obtain 
a double room, and set up a household apart, a further 
trifling gratuity is required ; or, rather, eighty of the best 
bed-rooms are thus appropriated, and the remaining eigh- 
ty bestowed gratuitously on couples wholly destitute of 
resources. Nothing can be neater or cleaner than the 
chambers allotted to either class, opening from an airy cor- 
ridor, several hundred feet long, having, opposite to each 
door, its locker, for wood and charcoal. The service of 
the whole establishment is conducted by forty nuns. 
Sisters of Charity., and the exquisite and delicate neat- 
ness of their kitchens, laundry, and gallery of linen pres- 
ses, do honor to their jurisdiction. Abundance of the 
most wholesome food, such as rice stewed in broth, 
meat, vegetables, and stewed fruit, are at all hours in 
preparation in a kitchen, which has the airiness and ele- 
gance of a varnished Dutch toy. 

An English gentleman residing in Paris had frequently 
noticed the cheerfulness, the affectionate disposition, the 
untiring industry of James, the errand-man, who was 
occasionally employed as drudge of all work at his hotel. 
"Walking one day in the outskirts of the city, he observed 
21 



James seated, side by side, with the driver of a small cart, 
loaded with a bed, two chairs, and a chest of drawers, and 
singing and laughing so heartily with his companion, that 
he immediately concluded, that these must be the Httle ar- 
ticles of furniture he had provided for his marriage with 
Josephine, the nursery-maid, to whom his attentions had 
for some time been very obvious. But, to his surprise, 
he found, that their destination was very different ; that 
James was carrying them to the Household Hospital, for 
the accommodation of his parents. The rest of the story 
will be best told in the Englishman's own words. 

'^ Is it, then, for your parents, my good lad," cried I, 
" that you are taking all this trouble .'"' 

'' Trouble /" reiterated James, in a stinging accent. 
" Why, for five years past, the pleasure of fixing the old 
folks in peace and comfort, for the rest of their lives, 
has been my dream by night, my care by day. Trouble, 
Sir ! ever since I chanced to be sent here on an errand 
by old Matthew's grandson, I have kept saying to my- 
self, ' James, my boy ! yonder is the place for the old 
folks. Manage to scrape together as much as will secure 
their old age an asylum in the Household Hospital, and 
you may henceforth sleep in peace.'' With that end in 
view, I have toiled early and late. Two hundred dollars 
is a trifle, when one looks back on the earning of it ; but 
when one looks f or ivard^ the task seems hopeless. Twice, 
too, I have been cruelly thrown back. I was blockhead 
enough to lend sixty dollars, two Winters back, to a coun- 
tryman, — a brother Auvergnat, — who had drawn a bad 
number for the conscription ; and though, by working 
hard, he might have paid me the money twice over, the 
fellow made off from Paris a few weeks afterwards, and 
has been heard of no more, — which was far from del- 
icate of him, as the debt was a debt of honor, and re- 
garded a brother Auvergnat. Monsieur may, perhaps, 
recollect, that he jeered me for being out of spirits, the 
Carnival before last, and gave me a dollar to keep 
Shrove- Tuesday with ? That was the very time I lost 
my money ; and that was the first I put, for luck's sake, in- 
to my new money-box. And luck it brought me, sir, — for, 



MORAL EDUCATION. 243 

the very next week, the Count threw me a double gold 
Napoleon, because he happened to drive his cabriolet 
over my foot, as I stood chopping wood in the court- 
yard. It is true, I had a hard matter to hobble about for 
six weeks afterwards, the frost having got into the wound. 
But what was that to the good fortune of having gained 
seven dollars at a stroke .'*" 

'' But, my good James," cried I, much affected by the 
recollection of his hard labors, and their scanty reward, 
*' why not apprise me of the object you had in view ?" 

" Because I knew Monsieur's good heart might lead 
him to do more than was altogether convenient to him. 
You paid me well, sir, for my services ; and to have 
hinted a wish for further gains would have been begging. 
And yet, about three months ago, sir, when I happened 
to meet Anthony, the great-grandson of old Matthew^, 
crying in the street, and heard from him, that the good old 
man was not expected to get through the night, and I 
went home, and broke my money-box, and found only 
fifty-five dollars, to add to the hundred and twenty register- 
ed to my name in the Savings Bank, I own, I had half 
a mind to implore of Monsieur the favor of a loan, of 
the twenty-five wanting, to make up my two hundred, in 
case of poor old Matthew being called away. By God's 
will, however, the old chap was spared, to toddle on a 
few months longer, and, luckily, in the busiest time of the 
year. Bless your heart ! I have stayed up, night after 
night, this Winter, at the masked balls, at the opera, or 
at Musard's, till seven o' clock in the morning, which is 
an ugly hour to look in the face when you have had no 
sight of a pillow, and the snow too thick on the ground to 
admit of sleeping on one's wheelbarrow, at the corner of 
the stxeet, during the day-time. However, there's an end 
to all things ! All 's over ! All 's safe ! Last night my 
money was deposited with the Treasurer of the Hospit- 
al, to the last half-penny ; and there's yet left behind," 
quoth he, jingling his pockets, and glancing good humor- 
edly at the porter, '' enough to afford a handsome gratui- 
ty to those who are about to have charge of the old 
folks." 



244 THE teacher's manual. 

My answer consisted in a hearty shake of the errand- 
man's horny hand. 

'' Monsieur must perceive," faltered he, as if apologiz- 
ing for not having appealed to my assistance, " that it will 
afford twice the pleasure, both to the old people and my- 
self, that this asylum is secured to them by my own, in- 
dustry, and not by the help of others. 'Tis a foolish 
thought, my good sir, for the like of us ; but you see, 
poor as we are, and Christians too, we are proud. This 
is not a common almshouse, sir. The Household Hos- 
pital is a place where respectable folks are admitted, for 
pay. I would not have shoved poor father and mother 
into the Charity-ward, any more than into a lazar-house ! 
nor I would not have liked to see them beholden to 
any but their own son, so long as he had arms to work 
for them. But all fear's at an end. Twenty cabriolets 
may drive over me now, or twenty choleras attack me. 
I have a right to be sick or sorry when I please. I have 
a right to sleep in my bed o'nights, and look the Count's 
saucy chap of a groom in the face by day. The old 
folks are safe. Whatever may happen to me, here is 
their birth, with food, raiment, and pocket-money, so long 
as it pleases God to spare them. It is a mightier relief 
than people dream of, to be relieved from all further anx- 
iety concerning one's father and mother." And James 
wiped his forehead, at the mere recollection of his past 
cares and present ease of mind. 

'' But all this time I am forgetting the cart," cried 
James. And, having hurriedly arranged with the porter to 
meet him in the chamber at three o'clock, he entreated 
me to return at the same hour, and be witness of the old 
people's inauguration. 

It was three o'clock, within three minutes, when I re- 
turned. On attaining the corner, the empty cart of my 
friend James stood at the gateway of the hospital. 

" The old people are arrived, then ?" said I, to the 
porter. " Arrived ! and I fear in some trouble," he re- 
plied ; " for my wife, who helped to escort them, was 
seen running from the house just now, to the infirmary, to 
fetch one of the nuns some ether." 



MORAL EDUCATION. 245 

The odor of that powerful restorative reached me, the 
moment I entered the gallery containing the little house- 
hold chamber of the new comers. The door was ajar, 
the opposite window open. I heard the ominous sound 
of human sobs within. 

My heart sank in my bosom. The joy of the old 
people had been too much for them. One of poor James's 
parents had, perhaps, fallen a victim to the agitation and 
hurry of removal. Peeping anxiously in, I prepared my- 
self for the sad spectacle of expiring age. 

*' He is better now," were the first words that struck 
ray ear, as I entered the room. When, lo ! wonder of 
wonders ! I descried poor James, with his bronzed cheeks 
white as ashes, sitting propped in his chair ! while the nun, 
sister Patronille, and a venerable-looking peasant couple, 
administered to his aid. It was the strong man who had 
fainted. — Overcome by the exquisite delight of installing 
his parents in their long-wished abode, consciousness had 
for some minutes been suspended in the Herculean frame 
of James the errandman. 

Fraternal love relates to the affection which ought to 
exist between brothers and sisters. " How good and 
how pleasant it is," says the Psalmist, ^* for brethren to 
dwell together in unity." It is " as the dew of Hermon, 
and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of 
Zion." What, indeed, can be a more captivating sight, 
than that of a whole family united as one, in the bonds of 
love ? And what more odious, than family jars and quar- 
rels ? Have you brothers and sisters at home ? Look 
not abroad, then, for friendship, for where can you find 
one "that sticketh closer than a brother." There is 
something so holy and pure in the mutual affection of a 
brother and sister, that, wherever it exists, we may rest 
assured that the heart is right. Oh ! what a mistake do 
those commit, who neglect to cultivate so precious a gift, 
when God hath placed it in their power. Parents and 
teachers should strive to sooth the little asperities that will 
occasionally arise in so intimate a connexion, and lead 
21* 



246 THE teacher's manual. 

their charge to take a pride in mutually sacrificing their 
little whims to each other. 

Friendship is the extension of this species of love to a 
wider range. We should be extremely cautious in the 
choice of friends, for nothing has a worse moral effect, or 
gives greater pain, than a breach of friendship ; and it can- 
not be enduring, where the dispositions are opposite. 
True friendship cannot exist between the good and the 
bad, between the liberal-minded and the selfish. When 
we have chosen wisely, however, our friend should be 
treated with confidence, with uniform kindness, with re- 
spect, with fidehty, and with constancy, — a constancy that 
should survive even the grave. " Some persons," says 
a French writer, "believe that there are no longer any 
duties to be fulfilled beyond the tomb ; and there are but 
few who know how to be friends to the dead. Though 
the most magnificent funeral pomp be the tears and the 
silent sorrow of those who survive, and the most honora- 
ble sepulture be in their hearts, we must not think that 
tears which are shed from the sensibility of the moment, 
and sometimes, too, from causes, which, in part, at least, 
relate to ourselves, acquit us of all our obligation. The 
name of our friends, their glory, their family, have still 
claims on our affection, which it would be guilt not to feel. 
They should still live in our heart, by the emotions which 
subsist there ; in our memory, by our frequent remem- 
brance of them ; in our conduct, by our imitation of their 
virtues." 

Perfidy is the breach of any of the social affections, 
particularly that of friendship. The perfidious are deserv- 
edly shunned and detested by all. 

38. Humanity. — Inhumanity. — Humanity signifies 
ithe feeling which leads us to treat the whole human race 
with kindness. Inhumanity is the reverse. 

39. Mercy. — Unmercifulness. — Mercy signifies the 
forgiveness of injuries ; the kind treatment of an enemy. 
Shakspeare has some beautiful lines on this subject : 

" The quality of mercy is not strained ; 
It droppeth, as the gentle dew of heaven 
Upon the place beneath : it is twice blessed : 
It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes.** 



MORAL EDUCATION.' 247 

The gospel attaches great importance to this virtue. 
Christ directs us to ask forgiveness of our sins on the con- 
dition that we pardon others ; and, not satisfied with the 
simple direction, he immediately repeats the injunction, 
in two other forms of words : " For, if ye forgive men 
their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive 
you : But if ye forgive not men their trespasses, neither 
will your Father forgive your trespasses."* He also 
most strikingly enforces this virtue, in his last moments, 
when his enemies were wreaking their vengeance on him, 
by a most cruel death : '' Father, forgive them, for they 
know not what they do." The beauty and delights of 
mercy ought to be exemplified in very early youth, and 
habits of mutual forgiveness formed, while the temper is 
pliant. 

40. Forbearance^ placability. — Implacability, morose- 
ness, spite. — These are the same virtues in a slighter de- 
gree ; or they may be considered merely as manners. 
They are of much importance, however, as occasions for 
them occur so frequently. Moroseness is peevishness, 
displayed in a rough manner ; spite is habitual malice, 
shown in small matters. Those who entertain them must 
needs be unhappy. 

41. Charity. — Uncharitableness, scandal, defamation. 
— Charity is that frame of mind, which habitually puts 
kind constructions on the actions of others, and looks on 
the favorable, rather than the unfavorable points of char- 
acter. Uncharitableness is not the vice of early youth. 
Very little pains, therefore, at its first appearance, will 
check its growth. Its true, perhaps its only, cure is in 
that culture of the intellect, which will create a general 
interest in better subjects of conversation. Where a com- 
pany take delight in books, the character of their neigh- 
bors will be a less frequent topic. Scandal, perhaps, 
marks the folly of the head, as much as the uncharitable- 
ness of the heart. 

42. Tolerance. — Intolerance. — Intolerance arises from 
the same source as the vices of the preceding article, name- 

* Matt. vi. 12, 14, 15. 



248 THE teacher's manual. 

ly, ignorance. It is also susceptible of the same cure, a 
better intellectual education. An ignorant man thinks 
that those who differ from him are actuated solely by 
blindness or obstinacy. He makes no allowance for the 
varied circumstances in which men are placed, which cause 
their views and opinions so essentially to differ ; and it 
never for a moment enters his mind, that he may be wrong. 
When men shall be properly educated, there will be but 
little intolerance in the world. 

43. Generosity, liberality. — Imprudence, greedi- 
ness, avarice. — Generosity and liberality are directly op- 
posed to that spirit of selfishness, which would appropri- 
ate every thing to itself. They are beautiful traits in in- 
fancy, and easily cultivated. The child wants but little 
encouragement to induce him to share his apples and 
cakes with his companions. Let this practice become 
universal, and we shall have a happier world to live in. 
There will be little danger of its running into imprudence, 
if habits of self-control and forethought (see numbers 9 
and 10) have been properly cultivated. Children, howev- 
er, should never be rewarded for liberality. Giving away, 
without self-denial, is not liberality. The approbation of 
their own bosoms, and the sight of the pleasure they oc- 
casion, should be the sole reward, and it is more than suffi- 
cient to repay their sacrifices. 

Selfishness is a great bar to the enjoyment of happiness, 
whose only unalloyed, legitimate source is found in pro- 
moting the happiness of others. Children should be contin- 
ually called on to consider what will please their brothers 
and sisters, as well as their parents. They should be 
taught to share with them every little present, and be 
led, by degrees, to think less of themselves, and more of 
others. If a child should say, that, by sharing his apple 
or cake, there will be none left for him, (a common ex- 
pression,) he should be answered, — Never mind that ; 
do n't you wish to please your friends or brothers ^ (as the 
case may be.) "I wish to go with you this afternoon, 
mother," said an amiable little girl," but brother wishes 
to go too ; and, as we can 't both go, I will stay at home." 
Who would not love a child of such a spirit .■* As chil- 



MORAL EDUCATION. 249 

dren grow up, and their acquaintance extends beyond the 
family circle, the same practice should be gradually exten- 
ded. " Don't you think your little schoolfellows, John 
and Mary," said a fond mother to her boy, " don't you 
think they would be pleased, if you were to save some of 
these nice plums for them ?" And, his countenance falling, 
she added, '> Do n't you think it would give you more 
pleasure to see them so happy, than if you were to eat 
them yourself?" 

Greediness and avarice are the opposites to generosity 
and liberahty. The former is general, the latter apphed 
chiefly to the passion for money. 

44. Kindness. — Oppression, cruelty to animals. — 
Children should be taught to be uniformly kind to all 
around them. At first, oppression and cruelty generally 
arises from mere thoughtlessness. The sooner, then, 
the wickedness of such a course is pointed out, the 
better. Perhaps, the duty of tenderness to the brute 
creation is most properly placed on the ground, that God 
is their and our common parent and protector. But there 
is another point of view, well deserving attention, namely, 
the tendency, which either viewing or inflicting torment 
has, to harden the heart. Can he, who, in his tender years, 
has amused himself with torturing flies, and, as his strength 
increased, extended his tyranny over fowls, dogs, horses, 
and cattle, can such a one be expected to prove an affec- 
tionate brother, a kind master, a tender parent ? Will 
he be likely to sympathize with the misfortunes of his 
neighbors ? Will he treat his parents, in their old age, 
with tenderness and care, or will he view them as a bur- 
den, and look forward, with anxiety, to their final removal? 

" Any thing to keep him quiet," answered an appar- 
ently-fond mother to my remonstrance, on seeing her 
supply her infant with flies and bugs, to torment. Mis- 
guided woman ! whose will be the fault, when thy child, 
whose heart thou thyself hast contributed to harden, shall 
exhibit its proper fruits, harshness and contumely towards 
thee, towards all mankind ? 

" There is one trait of character in our American 
boys," says the author of 'Fireside Education,' '* which 



250 

I think deserves to be checked ; and that is, the incessant 
war that they carry on against familiar birds and the lesser 
quadrupeds. As soon as a boy can hurl a stone, he be- 
comes a Nimrod, and goes forth as a mighty hunter against 
the bluebirds, cat-birds, swallows, and robins, that venture 
into our gardens, orchards, and fields. Not even the lit- 
tle wren, that comes with his fair offer of a dozen beauti- 
ful songs a day, for the rent of some nook or cranny about 
the house, is safe from the whizzing missile. Not even 
the little sparrow, that would build beneath your window, 
is tolerated. Not even the litde ground-squirrel, that 
enhvens the woods, is permitted to eat his nut in safety. 
And, when the boy becomes a youth, the same extermi- 
nating war is carried on, though with a different weapon. 
With a fowling-piece in his hand, he roams the orchard 
and the field, slaughtering, without discrimination, jays, 
woodpeckers, sparrows, blackbirds, bob-o-links, and the 
rest of the feathered family. 

" Now, is not this all wrong ^ Does not this partake 
»of cruelty } And, besides, is it not obvious folly ? For 
my own part, I love to see the birds enlivening the land- 
scape. The rigor of our climate drives them away for 
half the year ; but I mourn when they are gone, and re- 
joice at their return. They are a great resource to those 
who will observe them. Their songs, however varied, 
are ever beautiful. Their forms, habits, and capacities, 
are themes of interesting study. It is delightful to see 
them building their nests, rearing their young, pursuing 
their food, and displaying their various musical gifts. 
Why, then, should we drive these creatures away ? 
Some of them, it is true, are thieves, and take more 
cherries and corn than we are willing to spare them, and 
I approve of necessary scarecrows and suitable pelting, in 
these cases. But why banish the whole feathered race, 
most of whom are not merely innocent, but absolutely 
useful in diminishing the number of noxious insects ? It 
is not so in other countries. In England, birds generally 
are protected and cherished. I do not speak, now, of 
pheasants, partridges, and other game, which are shelter- 
ed in the parks, and preserved from all but his lordship's 



MORAL EDUCATION, 251 

shot ; but, throughout the whole country, the sparrows, 
bulfinches, goldfinches, thrushes, blackbirds., and other 
little songsters, are permitted to hve, almost without mo- 
lestation. They are seen, by hundreds, in every hedge 
and field. Many of them are almost domesticated around 
the houses ; and, even in the cities, such as Liverpool, 
Manchester, Birmingham, London, and others, amid the 
smoke of coal, the din of factories, and the throng of 
people, you see thousands of these little birds. In the 
heart of an Enghsh city, I have sometimes waked up, in 
the morning, and, from the bursting melody of finches 
and sparrows around, have imagined myself to be in the 
country. 

" Why is it that our custom, in respect to birds, is so 
different in America ? Have we derived from our pil- 
grim fathers a spirit of extermination ? Because the first 
settlers of this country cut away the forests, slaughtered 
the Indians, smote the bear and the bison, hunted down 
the panther and the wolf, have we derived from them a 
spirit of extirpation, which, now that the monsters of the 
forest are slain, is given up by men, but lives in our chil- 
dren, and vents itself on cat-birds and sparrows ? I 
know not ; but, be this as it may, I mourn over the soli- 
tude which is gradually gathering over the landscapes of 
New England, from the absence of the feathered songsters; 
and I mourn over that spirit of wanton cruelty, which makes 
man the enemy, instead of the friend, of harmless birds." 

It is to be hoped, that, by the introduction of botany 
and mineralogy into the schools, our youth may visit the 
fields and groves for other and better purposes than the 
wanton destruction of so interesting a part of creation ; 
and that parents and teachers will embrace so good an 
opportunity of checking this unamiable characteristic. 

It is an error to imagine that creatures in misery are 
the only objects of benevolence, and that it has no func- 
tion but the excitement of pity. It is a wide-spreading 
fountain of generous feeling, desiring for its gratification, 
not only the removal of pain, but the maintenance and 
augmentation of positive enjoyment ; and the happier it 
can render its objects, the more complete are its satisfac- 



252 THE teacher's manual. 

tion and delight. Its exercise is a source of great pleas- 
ure to the individual himself ; and, from the nature of the 
human faculties, every person, without injuring himself, 
has it in his power to confer prodigious benefits ; or, in 
other words, to pour forth the most copious streams of 
benevolence on others, by properly gratifying their various 
feehngs and intellectual faculties." 

45. Magnanimity. — Meanness. — These traits relate 
to greatness of mind, and its opposite. Magnanimity is 
shown in passing over trifling injuries, and, in this sense, it 
is connected with forbearance and mercy. But in noth- 
ing is it more strikingly displayed, than in the confession 
of an error in opinion or practice ; in nothing is mean- 
ness more obvious, than in the obstinate adherence to er- 
ror, or in shutting the eyes to facts, to prevent conviction. 
Yet, how rare is this display, either in the walks of private 
life, or in the halls of legislation. Some people, in ar- 
guing with children, teach them to be disingenuous, by the 
uncandid manner in which they proceed. They show a 
desire for victory, rather than for truth ; they state the 
arguments only on their own side of the question, and 
they will not allow the force of those which are brought 
against them. Children are thus piqued, instead of being 
convinced ; and, in their turn, they become zealots in sup- 
port of their own opinions ; they hunt only for arguments 
in their own favor, in place of seeking after truth ; and 
they are mortified, when a good reason is brought on the 
side of the question opposite to that on which they hap- 
pen to have enlisted. To prevent this, we should never 
argue, nor suffer others to argue, for victory, with our 
children. We should not praise them for their clever- 
ness in finding out arguments in support of their own 
opinion, but we should praise their candor and good sense, 
when they perceive and acknowledge the force of their 
opponent's arguments. They should not be exercised as 
advocates, but as judges ; they should be encouraged to 
keep their minds impartial, to sum up the reasons they 
have heard, and to form their opinion from these, without 
regard to what they may have originally asserted. We 
should never triumph over children for changing their 



MORAL EDUCATION. 253 

opinions. " I thought you were on my side of the ques- 
tion," or, " I thought you were on the other side, just 
now," is sometimes tauntingly said to an ingenuous child, 
who changes his opinion when he hears a new argument. 
It is no proof of his want of judgment, when he changes 
his opinion in this manner, that he vibrates, continually, 
from side to side. Do you think it a proof that your 
scales are bad, because they vibrate with every addition- 
al weight that is added to either side ? Debating societies, 
it is to be feared, have somewhat of the same tendency 
with that of the injudicious reasoners already alluded to, 
that of leading young people to seek for victory, rather 
than truth. We have now, and always shall have, a 
sufficiency of lawyers in the community ; but every child 
should be trained to be a good juror, a good legislator, a 
good judge. It may be asked, whether a man is properly 
fitted to exercise the elective franchise ; nay, still further, 
whether a man can be (except by chance) a sound, con- 
sistent Christian, who is incapable of loeighing arguments, 
of looking at tvv-o sides of a question. 

46. Good temper. — III temper. ) Good and ill tem- 

47. Good humor. — Fretfulness. ) per display them- 
selves in the more important cases ; good humor and 
fretfulness in the more frequent and trifling occasions. 
A good-tempered man may be fretful at trifles ; but sum- 
mons his philosophy to bear more important ills. A 
good-humored man will laugh at what occasions fretful- 
ness in others ; but may succumb, and lose command of 
himself, on an important occasion, when he has most 
need of it. Both qualities are good in themselves ; each 
is incomplete without the other. 

4S. Indignation. — Jlnger., resentment. — Indignation 
is the anger we feel at seeing others injured. Anger is 
the instant passion we feel on receiving an injury our- 
selves. Resentment is anger long retained. The first 
is a proper sentiment. The second is excusable, within 
proper bounds. The third is always wrong. 

49. Sympathy. — Selfishness^ envy. — Sympathy is that 
emotion by which we enter into, or participate in, the 
joys and sorrows of others. Selfishness expresses the 
22 



254 THE teacher's manual. 

total want of such feelings. Envy is the reverse of sym- 
pathy. It causes us to feel sorrow at the joys, and joy 
at the sorrows, of others. As sympathy is not only due 
to all, but tends greatly to the happiness of its possessor, 
it should be carefully cultivated in youth. Selfishness 
and envy, in like manner, should be repressed, as not 
only injurious to others, but as a source of misery to all 
who cherish them. 

50. Politeness. — Etiquette. — Impoliteness. — Bolitencss 
does not consist, as some appear to suppose, in forms of 
speech, or gesticulations of body. It resides in the 
mind ; and, in fact, is nothing less than the carrying out, 
extensively, the great Christian precept, '' Whatsoever 
ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to 
them.'' The Quakers, as a body, possess the essence 
of pohteness, without its forms. When you enter a 
house, you are received with attention, but with the ut- 
most ease. Should you stay to eat, you partake of the 
family meal ; there is no unusual delay, no fuss, or run- 
ning about, to show you what trouble you cause them. 
You at once find yourself easy, and at home. — Grace- 
fulness of behavior consists in an easy and natural mo- 
tion and gesture, and looks denoting kindness and good 
will to those with whom we converse. If a child's heart 
and temper are formed to civility, its outward expression 
will come in due time. Did parents consider these ob- 
vious things, they would bestow their chief attention on 
the mind, and not make themselves, their children, and 
their visiters, perpetually uneasy about what they con- 
sider the graces. True grace has been defined, the art 
of being easy in company, and of making all others easy 
about us. It consists in indiscriminate attention, in ac- 
commodating our conversation to the particular tastes, 
habits, and inclinations, of those we are in company with ; 
in never even glancing on our own affairs, but always 
paying the most minute regard to those of others. How 
disgustingly selfish and impohte is the conduct of those 
who talk continually of their own affairs ! Etiquette is 
something very different from politeness. Every clime 
and country has its different modes and fantastic ceremo- 



MORAL EDUCATION. 255 

nies, to compensate for the absence of the proper spirit 
of intercourse. Politeness is the same over all the world. 
It resides in the generous bosom of every color and name. 
How ridiculous, then, is their folly, who, regarding only 
the external expression, labor to recommend themselves 
by tricks and forms, which require little more than the 
imitative faculties of a well-bred monkey to practise ! 
Politeness should not be confined to our intercourse with 
strangers. It should be extended to every member of 
the household. For the more intimate our connexion 
with any one, the more necessary it is to guard ourselves 
against taking unwarrantable liberties. For the very rea- 
son that we are so much together, we should take care 
to do nothing disagreeable to each other. 

51. ^ffaMlity. — Reserve. — Affability is politeness, 
exercised towards those who are young, or in an inferior 
station. It is necessary, to complete the character of a 
truly polite man. 

52. Kindness in conversation. — Petulance. — ^' There 
is no way," says the Rev. Horace Hooker, " in which 
men can do good to others, with so little expense and 
trouble, as by kindness in conversation. ' Words,' it is 
sometimes said, 'cost nothing.' But kind words are 
often more highly valued than the most costly gifts ; and 
they are always regarded as among the best tokens of a 
desire to make others happy. We should think that 
kind words would be very common, they are so cheap ; 
but there are many, who have a large assortment of all 
other language, except that of kindness. They have 
bitter words, and witty words, and learned words, in 
abundance ; but their stock of kind words is small. The 
churl himself, one might suppose, would not grudge a 
little kindness in his language, however closely he clings 
to his money ; but there are persons, who draw on their 
kindness with more reluctance than on their purses. 

'' Some use grating words, because they are of a mo- 
rose disposition. Their language, as well as their man- 
ners, shows an unfeeling heart. Others use rough words, 
out of an affectation of frankness. They may be severe 
in their remarks ; but then they claim that they are open 



256 THE teacher's manual. , 

and independent, and will not be trammelled. They are 
no flatterers, they say ; and this they think excuse enough, 
for all the cutting speech which they employ. Others 
wish to be thought witty ; and they will, with equal in- 
difference, wound the feehngs of friend or foe, to show 
their smartness. Some are envious, and cannot bear to 
speak kindly of others, or to them, because they do not 
wish to add to their happiness. And some are so ill- 
bred, that they seem to take delight in using unkind 
words, when their intentions are good, and their feelings 
are warm. Their words are rougher than their hearts ; 
they will make sacrifices of ease and property, to pro- 
mote your comfort, while they will not deign to employ 
the terms of courtesy and kindness. Of these, the Scots 
have an expressive proverb, that ' their bark is worse 
than their bite.' Many a man w^ould be loved for his 
liberal deeds, if his tongue, by its harshness, did not re- 
pel affection. And he often wonders why his friends 
seem to care so little for him, when they are very grate- 
ful to others, from whom they receive not half so many 
favors. Some are caustic and severe in their language, 
for the sake of showing their superior acuteness and dis- 
crimination. They would rend in pieces a cloth of gold, 
to detect a defective thread, which had escaped the less 
keen observation of others. They are always on the 
watch, to spy out some fault in character, or in composi- 
tion, which others overlook ; that they may appear to 
have uncommon discernment, and rare skill in criticism. 

" If the happiness of others is not motive enough for 
kind words, we may find a motive in their influence on 
ourselves. The habit of using them will, at length, 
conform our feelings to our language. We shall become 
kind, not only in our speech, but in our manners, and in 
our hearts. On the other hand, to make use of carping, 
harsh, and bitter, words, seldom fails to sour the disposi- 
tion, and to injure the temper." 

56. Respect to age and station, — Want of ditto. — One 
would think, that the very circumstance of our all wishing 
or expecting to live to old age, would induce a general 
respect for persons in that period of life, independent of 



MORAL EDUCATION. 257 

the injunctions of religion. Yet how different is the fact ! 
The word old has almost become a term of opprobrium. 
Steele relates, that, at Athens, during a public represen- 
tation of some play exhibited in honor of the Common- 
wealth, an old gentleman came too late for a place suita- 
ble to his age and quality. Many of the young Athe- 
nians, who observed the difficulty and confusion he was 
in, made signs to him that they would accommodate him, 
if he came where they sat. The good man bustled 
through the crowd accordingly ; but, when he came to 
the seats to which he was invited, the jest was to sit 
close, and expose him, as he stood, out of countenance, 
to the whole audience. The frolic went round the Athe- 
nian benches. But, on these occasions, there were also 
particular places assigned for foreigners. When the good 
man skulked towards the boxes appropriated to the Lac- 
edemonians, that honest people rose all up, to a man, 
and, with the greatest respect, received him among them. 
The Athenians, being suddenly touched with a sense of 
the Spartan virtue, and their own degeneracy, gave a 
thunder of applause ; and the old man cried out, " The 
Athenians understand what is good, but the Lacedemo- 
nians practise it." 

57. Punctuality, — Want of ditto. — Want of punctuali- 
ty is a serious evil. It not only causes a vast deal of time to 
be .uselessly squandered, but it is the means of disturbing 
the devotions of the pious, in all our places of worship. 
The common saying, ''It is always one till it is two," 
leads to a general hanging back, at every kind of public 
meeting, until it becomes impossible to say, when busi- 
ness will be attended to. The more intelligent part of 
the community ought to endeavor to break up the loung- 
ing habit, produced by this spirit of procrastination. Let 
them determine, that one shall mean one, and two, two ; 
and that, when a meeting is called at a particular hour, 
the business shall be commenced when that hour arrives, 
and the evil will soon be at an end. A short time since, 
in a village in the neighborhood of London, a committee 
of eight ladies, who managed the concerns of an institu- 
tion, which had been formed for the rehef of the neighbor- 
22* 



258 THE teacher's manual. 

ing poor, agreed to meet on a certain day, at twelve 
o'clock, precisely. Seven of them attended punctually, 
at the appointed hour ; the eighth did not arrive till a 
quarter of an hour after. She came in, according to the 
usual mode, with " I'm very sorry to be behind in the 
time appointed, but really the time slipped away with- 
out my being sensible of it. I hope your goodness will 
excuse it." 

One of the ladies, who was a quaker, rephed, " Truly, 
friend, it doth not appear clear to me that we ought to 
accept of thy apology. Hadst thyself only lost a quarter 
of an hour, it would have been merely thy concern ; but, 
in this case, the quarter must be multiplied by eight, as 
we have each lost a quarter ; so that there have been two 
hours of useful time sacrificed, by thy want of punctuality." 

If every one had to pay for the time he caused others 
to lose in this way, what a bill some of us w^ould run up ! 
The teacher should be careful to check this spirit in the 
young. 



. CHAPTER XII. 

MORAL EDUCATION. 

Recapitulation. 

The following appear to be the results of our inquiries 
on the subject of moral education : 

I. That, at present, there is a total want of moral 
training in our schools. 

II. That, though the branch of morals relating to re- 
ligious faith and modes of worship is properly excluded 
from the public schools, this circumstance only serves to 
enhance the necessity of attention to the other parts of 
moral instruction. 

III. That the practice of virtue and the avoidance of 
vice should be carefully cultivated and enforced, in early 
youth, it being too late to commence, when opposite habits 
have become fixed, and the passions fully developed. 



MORAL EDUCATION. 259 

IV. That the conscience should be developed, on the 
first dawning of reason, and cherished and strengthened, 
by constant use. 

V. That this may be done by a suitable mode of ques- 
tioning on the reading lessons, and on the occurrences in 
the school and neighborhood. 

VI. That a Daily Record for self-examination, with 
an appropriate series of questions, would be highly useful. 

VII. That every school ought to be provided with a 
Tabular Catalogue of the Virtues and their opposite 
Vices, with suitable explanations, to which constant ref- 
erence should be made by the pupils. 

VIII. That the teacher ought daily to ask himself, 
whether he has performed all his duties towards his 
school. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

COxVCLUSION, 



The following quotation, from Mrs. Austin's Preface 
to her translation from Cousin's Report on Education in 
Prussia, forms an appropriate close to the whole sub- 
ject. 

" It seems to me, that we are guilty of great inconsis- 
tency, as to the ends and objects of education. How in- 
dustriously have not its most able and most zealous cham- 
pions been continually instilling into the minds of the peo- 
ple, that education is the way to advancement, that ' knowl- 
edge is power ;' that a man cannot ' better himself ' 
without some learning ! And then we complain, that 
education will set them above their station, disgust them 
with labor, make them ambitious, envious, dissatisfied ! 
We must reap as we sow. We set before their eyes ob- 
jects the most tempting to the desires of the most uncul- 
tivated men ; we urge them on to the acquirement of 
knowledge, by holding out the hope that knowledge will 
enable them to grasp these objects : if their minds are 
corrupted by the nature of the aim, and embittered by the 



260 

failure which must be the lot of the mass, who is to 
blame ? 

" If, instead of nurturing expectations which cannot be 
fulfilled, and turning the mind on a track which must 
lead to a sense of continual disappointment, and thence 
of wrong, we were to hold out the appropriate and attain- 
able, nay, unfailing^ ends of a good education; the gen- 
tle and kindly sympathies ; the sense of self-respect, and 
of the respect of fellow-men ; the free exercise of the 
intellectual faculties ; the gratification of a curiosity that 
' grows by what it feeds on,' and yet finds food for ever ; 
the power of regulating the habits and the business of life, 
so as to extract the greatest possible portion of comfort 
out of small means ; the refining and tranquilhzing enjoy- 
ment of the beautiful in Nature and art, and the kindred 
perception of the beauty and nobility of virtue ; the 
strengthening consciousness of duty fulfilled ; and, to 
crown all, ' the peace that passeth all understanding ;' if 
we directed their aspirations this way, it is probable that 
we should not have to complain of being disappointed, 
nor they of having been deceived. Who can say, that 
wealth can purchase better things than these ? and who 
can say, that they are not within the reach of every man, 
of sound body and mind, who, by labor not destructive 
of either, can procure for himself and his family, food, 
clothing, and habitation ?" 

In our country, if a young man take a single step 
beyond a common English education, it is considered 
as a matter of course that he is preparing himself for 
one of what are called the learned professions ; as if gen- 
eral knowledge and well-disciplined minds were totally 
unnecessary for farmers, mechanics, and tradesmen ! Go, 
little book ! if thou shouldst succeed, in any degree, in 
undeceiving the community of this grievous error, in de- 
monstrating the practicability and necessity of a thorough 
education for all, my time will have been well spent, my 
labors will have met with an ample reward. 



APPENDIX. 



LIST OF BOOKS FOR A DISTRICT SCHOOL LIBRARY ; 
AND FOR A LIBRARY FOR AN AGRICULTURAL TOWN, 
OR A CENTRAL SCHOOL. 

1. — For the District School. 



Parley's Magazine, published 

monthly. 
Parley's Tales about Europe. 
Asia. 
Africa. 
America, 
the Sea. 
Islands in 
Pacific. 
Every Day Book. 
Book of Bible Stories. 
Christmas Tales. 
Abbott's Rollo learning to Talk. 
" to Read, 
at School, 
at Vacation, 
at Work, 
at Play. 
Rollo's Museum. 

" Experiments. 
Child at Home. 
Hoary Head. 
M'Donner. 
School-Boy. 
Caleb in Town. 
" "the Country. 
The Garden, by S. G. Goodrich. 
Life of Washington, by do. 
Child's History of the United 
States, by Charles A. Goodrich. 
Uncle Philip's Conversations with 



the Children about the Whale- 
fishery and Polar Seas, 2 vols. 

about the 

Trees of America. 

with Young 

Persons. 
The Young Crusoe, by Mrs. Hof- 

iand. 
The Children's Robinson Cru- 
soe. 
The Swiss Family Robinson, 2 

vols. 
Robinson Crusoe, by Defoe. 
Alexander Selkirk, the real Rob- 
inson Crusoe. 
Goodrich's Life of Columbus. 

" " Franklm. 

Mrs. Barbauld'fe Prose Hymns, 
Poems for Infant Minds, by the 
. Taylor family. 
Miss Edgeworth's Frank. 

Harry and Lucy. 
Rosamond. 
C Parent's Assist- 
\ ant. 

Popular Tales. 
J Tales of Fash- 
l ionable Life. 
Moral Tales. 
Mrs. Barbauld's Lessons for Chil- 
dren. 



262 



APPENDIX. 



Mrs. Child's Biographical Sketch- 
es. 
Berquin's Children's Friend, 4 

vols. 
Evenings at Home. 
Sandford and Merton. 
Scott's Tales of a Grandfather, 8 

vols. 
Miss Sedgwick's New England 

Tale. 
Illustrations of Lying, by Mrs. 

Opie. 
Gallaudet's Child's Book on the 

Soul. 
Gallaudet's Natural Theology. 
Constance Latimer, with other 

Tales, by Mrs. Embury. 
The Palfreys, a Tale. 
Conversations of a Father with his 

Children. 
Weems' Life of Washington. 
" Franklin. 



Weems' Life of Penn. 

'< " Marion. 

Parley's Poetic Stories. 
The Young Emigrants, published 

by Carter and Hendee. 
Fruit and Flowers. 
Cottagers of Glenburnie, by Mrs. 

Hamilton. 
Rasselas. 
Love Token for Children, by Miss 

Sedgwick. 
Panorama of Professions and 

Trades. 
Sigourney's Olive Buds. 

" History of Marcus 

Aurelius. 
Dunlap's History of New York. 
My Early Days. 
Cook's Voyages. 
The Robins, by Mrs. Trimmer. 
Introduction to the Knowledge of 

Nature, by do. 



2. — For the Town Library. 



Plutarch's Lives. 
Anacharsis' Travels. 
Translations of the following 
works : 

Herodotus. 
Thucydides. 
Xenophon. 
Demosthenes. 
Arrian. 
Livy. 
Tacitus. 
Caesar. 
Sallust. 
Cicero. 
Lingard's History of England, 14 

vols. 
Robertson's Charles V. 
" Scotland. 

" America. 

India. 
Hallam's Middle Ages. 
Russell's Modern Europe. 



Ramsay's Universal History, 9 

vols. 
Boswell's Life of Johnson. 

" Tour to the Hebrides. 
Marshall's Life of Washington. 
History of England, by Sir Jas. 

Mackintosh. 
Taylor's (or Moore's) History of 

Ireland. 
Crowe's History of France. 
Bancroft's History of the United 

States. 
Guizot's History of Civilization. 
Sparks' Life of Ledyard. 

*« American Biography. 
Lockhart's Life of Scott, 7 vols. 
Southey's Life of Cowper. 
Mrs. Child's Biography of Lady 

Russell and Madame Guyon. 
Lives of the Signers of the Dec- 
I laration of Independence. 
I The Federalist. 



APPENDIX. 



263 



Chipman's Principles of Govern- 
ment. 

Marshall on Federal Constitution. 

Mackintosh on Law of Nature 
and Nations. 

American's Guide, containing all 
the Constitutions, Slc. 

Dr. Humphrey's Tour, 2 vols. 

Irving's Tour on the Prairies. 
" Astoria. 
" Sketch Book. 

Nuttall's Manual of Ornithology. 

Carpenter's Scripture Natural 
History. 

Ware's Smallie's Philosophy of 
Natural History. 

Smith's Class Book of Anatomy. 

Bell's Lessons on the Human 
Frame. 

Abbott's Abercrombie on the In- 
tellectual Pow^ers. 

Abbott's Abercrombie on the Mo- 
ral Feelings. 

Combe, on the Constitution of 
Man. 

Mudie, on Man. 

Wayland's Elements of Moral 
Science. 

Political Economy. 

Martineau's Illustrations of Polit- 
ical Economy. 

Addison's Works. 

Johnson's Works. 

Dick's Works. 

Bridgewater Treatises. 

Walton's Lives. 

Winslow's Young Man's Aid. 

Brougham's Discourse on Natural 
Theology. 

Abbott's Mother at Home. 

Neal's Charcoal Sketches. 

Sartor Resartus, by Carlyle. 

Humboldt's Travels in South 
America. 

Hall's Voyage to the Eastern 
Seas. 

Lesslie, Jameson, and Murray's 
Narrative of Discovery and Ad- 
venture in Africa- 

Lander's Expedition to the Ni- 
ger. 



Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolks, 

by Sir Walter Scott. 
Works of John Milton. 

" of James Thomson. 
Poems of William Cowper. 

" of Wordsworth. 

" of Southey. 

" of Bryant. 

" of Percival. 
Goldsmith's Entire Works. 
Chaptal's Chemistry applied to 

Agriculture. 
Fessenden's Complete Farmer. 
Davy's Elements of Chemical 

Philosophy. 
Herschell's Astronomy. 

" Discourse on Natural 

Philosophy. 
The Heavens, by Mudie. 
The Earth, by do. 

Library of Entertaining Knowl- 
edge. 
The Old Bachelor, 2 vols. 
The British Spy, 2 vols. 
Franklin's Works. 
Works of Jane Taylor, 3 vols. 
Don Q,uixote, 4 vols. 
Mrs. Opie's Tales, 6 vols. 
Miss Edgeworth's Works. 
Cooper's Spy. 

" Bravo. 

Pilot. 

" Last of the Mohicans. 

Irving's Tales of a Traveller. 

Sketch Book. 
Brown's Arthur Mervyn. 

" Edgar Huntley. 

Village Pastor and his Children, 

from the German. 
Paul and Virginia. 
Scottish Chiefs. 
Temperance Tales. 
Permanent Temperance Docu- 
ments. 
Miss Sedgwick's Works. 
Mrs. Sigourney's Works. 
Henry's Mackenzie's Works. 
A Good Gazetteer. 
Lavoisne's Atlas of History, &c. 
American Atlas on the plan of La- 

voisne. 



THE SCHOOL ADVERTISER NO. U. 

AUGUST, 1839. 



THE SCHOOL LIBRARY. 



MARSH, CAPEN, LYON, AND WEBB, 

109, Washington Street, Boston, 

AllE NOW PUBLISHING, UNDER THE SANCTION OF THE MAS- 
SACHUSETTS Board of Education, a collection of ori- 
ginal AND selected WORKS, ENTITLED, ' ThE ScHOOL 

Library.' 

The Library will embrace two series of fifty volumes 
each ; the one to be in 18mo., averaging from 250 to 280 
pages per volume ; the other in 12mo., each volume con- 
taining from 350 to 400 pages. The former, or Juvenile 
Series, is intended for children of ten or twelve years of 
age and under; the latter for individuals of that age, and 
upwards, — in other words, for advanced scholars and their 
parents. 

The Library is to consist of reading, and not school, 
class, or text books ; the design being to furnish youth with 
suitable works for perusal during their leisure hours ; works 
that will interest, as well as instruct them, and of such a 
character that they will turn to them with pleasure, when 
it is desirable to unbend from the studies of the school 
room. 

The plan will embrace every department of Science and 
Literature, preference being given to works relating to 
our own Country, and illustrative of the history, institutions, 
manners, customs, &c., of our own people. Being intended 
for the whole community, no work of a sectarian or de- 
nominational character in religion, or of a partisan char- 
acter in politics, will be admitted. 

The aim will be to clothe the subjects discussed, in a 
popular garb, that they may prove so attractive, as to lure 



2 

the child onwards, fix his attention, and induce him, sub- 
sequently, to seek information from other and more re- 
condite works, which, if put into his hands at the onset, 
would alarm him, and induce a disgust for that which 
would appear dry and unintelligible, and of course, un- 
interesting. 

The intention is not to provide information for any one 
class, to the exclusion of others, but to disseminate knowl- 
edge among all classes. The Publishers wish the children 
of the Farmer, the Merchant, the Manufacturer, the Me- 
chanic, the Laborer, — all to profit by the lights of science 
and literature, that they may be rendered the more virtu- 
ous and happy, and become more useful to themselves, to 
one another, to the community, and mankind at large. 
To accomplish this desirable end, the Library will em- 
brace so wide a range of subjects, that every child may 
find something which will prove useful and profitable to 
him, whatever his situation, circumstances, or pursuits, in 
afterlife may be. 

The project is one of great extent, and vast importance; 
and, if properly carried out, must become of inestimable 
value to the young. Whether the anticipations of the 
Publishers, with regard to it, will be verified, time must 
determine ; but from the intellectual and moral, theoretical 
and practical character of those who have engaged to aid 
in the undertaking, they have good grounds for presuming 
that much will be accomplished, and that by their united 
efforts many obstacles, now existing to the mental, moral, 
and physical improvement of youth, will be removed, or at 
least be rendered more easily surmountable. 

Among the individuals already engaged as writers for 
one or both Series, may be mentioned — the Hon. Judge 
Story, Jared Sparks, Esq., Washington Irving, Esq., Rev. 
Dr. Wayland, Professor Benjamin Silliman, Professor Den- 
nison Olmsted, Professor Alonzo Potter, Hon. Judge Buel, 
Dr. Jacob Bigelow, Dr. Robley Dunglison, Dr. Elisha 
Bartlett, Rev. Charles W. Upham, Rev. F. W. P. Green- 
wood, Rev. Royal Robbins, Rev. Warren Burton, Ar- 
thur J. Stansbury, Esq., E. C. Wines, Esq., Robert Ran- 
toul, Jr., Esq., Professor Tucker, and Professor Elton. 

Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, Mrs. E. F. Ellet, Mrs. Emma C. 
Embury, Mrs. A. H. Lincoln Phelps, Miss E. Robbins, 



3 

Miss E. P. Peabody, Miss Mary E. Lee, Miss Caroline 
Sedgwick. 

No work will be admitted into the Library, unless it be 
approved by every member of the Board of Education ; 
which Board consists of the following individuals, viz., 
His Excellency Edward Everett, Chairman, His Honor 
George Hull, Rev. Emerson Davis, Edmund Dwight, 
Esq., Rev. George Putnam, Robert Rantoul, Jr., Esq., 
Rev. Thomas Robbins, D. D., Jared Sparks, Esq., Hon. 
Charles Hudson, and Hon. George N. Briggs. 

The following works, have been printed, and constitute 
the first ten volumes of the 12mo. series, viz. 

LIFE OF COLUMBUS, by Washington Irving, a 
new edition, (revised by the author,) including a Visit to 
Palos, and other additions, a portrait of the Great Naviga- 
tor, a Map, and several illustrative engravings. 

PALEY'S NATURAL THEOLOGY, in two volumes, 
with selections from the Dissertations and Notes of Lord 
Brougham and Sir Charles Bell, illustrated by numer- 
ous wood cuts, and prefaced by a Life of the Author ; 
(with a portrait;) the whole being newly arranged and 
adapted for The School Library, by Elisha Bartlett, 
M. D., Professor of the Theory and Practice of Physic and 
Pathological Anatomy in Dartmouth College. 

LIVES OF EMINENT INDIVIDUALS, CELEBRA- 
TED IN AMERICAN HISTORY, in three vols., with 
portraits of Robert Fulton, Sebastian Cabot, and Sir Henry 
Vane, and autographs of most of the individuals. 

Vol. I. WILL CONTAIN 

Life of MAjoR-aENERAL John Stark, by His Excellency Edward Everett. 
" David Brainerd, by Rev. William B. O. Peabody. 

" Robert Fulton, by James Renwick, LL. D., Professor of Natural Phi- 
losophy and Chemistry^ in Columbia College, New York City. 
" Captain John Smith, by George S. Hillard, Esq. 

Vol. II. WILL CONTAIN 

Life of Major-general Ethan Allen, by Jared Sparks, Professor of History 
in Harvard University. 
" Sebastian Cabot, by Charles Ilayward, Jr., Esq. 
" Henry Hudson, by Henry R. Cleveland, Esq. 

" Majoh-general Joseph Warren, by Alexander H. Everett, LL. D. 
" M\jor-general Israel Putnam, by O. W. B. Peabody, Esq. 
" David Rittenhouse, by Professor James Renwick, L L. D 



Vol. III. WILL CONTAIN 

Life of William Pinkney, by Henry Wheaton, LL. D., Author of History of 

the Northmen. 
•' Sir Henry Vane, by Rev. Charles W. Upliam. 
" Major-general Anthony W^ayne, by John Armstrong, Esq. 
" William Elleey, by EdAvard T. Channing, Esq. 
*' Major-general Richard Montgomery, by John Armstrong, Esq. 

THE SACRED PHILOSOPHY OF THE SEASONS, 
illustrating The Perfections of God in the Phenomena of 
the Year. In 4 vols. By the Rev. Henry Duncan, D. D., 
of Ruthwell, Scotland; with important additions, and some 
modifications to adapt it to American readers, by the Rev. 
F. W. P. Greenwood, of Boston. 

The great value and interesting nature of these volumes, to every 
class of individuals, will be seen, at once, by a perusal of the following 
Table of Contents. The work contains a paper for every day in the year. 

VOL. I.— WINTER. 

I. Sunday. — Goodness of God to his Rational Creatures. The Character im- 
pressed on Nature — Compensation. Contrivance. 

COSMICAL arrangements. 

Globular Figure of the Earth. Circulation in the Atmosphere and Ocean. 
The Atmosphere. Ignis Fatuus. ii. Sunday. — General Aspect of Winter. 
Phosphorescence. Aurora Borealis. Meteoric Showers. Variety of Climates. 
Practical Effect of the Commercial Spirit produced by a Variety of Climates,^ 
Adaptation of Organized Existences to Seasons and Climates, iii. Sunday.— 
The Omnipresence of God. Adaptation of Organized Existences to the Tropical 
Regions. Adaptation of Organized Existences to Temperate and Polar Climates. 
The Balance Preserved in the Animal and Vegetable Creation. Night. — Its Al- 
ternation with Day. Sleep. Dreaming, iv. Sunday. — The World a State of 
Discipline. 

the starry heavens. 

General Remarks. Gravitation and Inertia. The Planetary System. The 
Sun as the Source of Light and Heat. Motions of the Planets. Resisting Me- 
dium. V. Sunday. — Divine and Human Knowledge compared. The Satellites. 
Relative Proportions of the Planetary System. Distance of the Fixed Stars. 
Immensity of the Universe. Nebulse. Binary Stars. 

THE microscope. 

VI. Sunday. — Discoveries of the Telescope and Microscope compared. Won- 
ders of the Microscope. — Infusory Animalcules. 

hybernation of plants. 
Plantfs and Animals compared. Adjustment of the Constitution of Plants to 
the Annual Cycle. Physiological Condition of Plants during Winter. 

hybernation of insects. 
Instinct, vii. Sunday.— On Seeing God in his Works. Reason in the Lower 
Animals. Eggs. Various States. Bees. The Snail. The Beetle, viii. Sun- 
day. — Greatness of God even in the Smallest Things. 

MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS AND QUADRUPEDS DURING WINTER. 

Birds. Birds which partially migrate. Quadrupeds. 

Christmas-Day. No Season Unpleasant to the Cheerful Mind. ix. 
Sunday. — Proofs of Divine Benevolence in the Works of Creation. 



MIGRATION OF FISHES. 

The Sturgeon, the Herring, the Cod, &c. Cetaceous Animals. Migration frcra 
the Sea into Rivers. Migration of Eels. 
New-Year's-Day. 
Migration of the Land-Crab. x. Sunday.— J-Tzn^er an Emblem of Death. 

HYBERNATION OF QUADRUPEDS. 

Clothing. Storing Instincts. Torpidity. 

HYBERNATION OF MAN. 

Privation stimulates his Faculties. Provisions for his Comfort. Adaptation 
of his Constitution to the Season, xi. Sunday. — The Unceasing- and Universal 
Providence of God. 

INHABITANTS OF THE POLAR REGIONS. 

The Esquimaux. Food and Clothing. Dwellings and Fire. 

FROST. 

Provision for causing Ice to Float on the Surface. The Expansive and Non- 
conducting Power of Ice. Amusements connected with it. xii. Sunday. — 
Winter not Monotonous. — Boundless Variety of Nature. Effects of Frost in the 
Northern Regions. Agency of Frost in Mountainous Regions. Hoar Frost. — 
Foliations on Window-Glass, &c. Beneficent Contrivances relative to Snow. 
Sagacity and Fidelity of the Dog in Snow. 



Its Phenomena consistent with the Mosaic Account of the Creation, xiii. 
Sunday. — The Difficulty of Comprehending the Operations of Providence. Suc- 
cessive Periods of Deposit. Successive Periods of Organized Existences. State 
of the Antediluvian World. Indications of the Action of the Deluge at the Period 
assigned to it in Scripture. Cuvier's Calculation respecting the Deluge. Effects 
of the Deluge on the Present Surface of the Earth, xiv. Sunday. — The Deluge 
a Divine Judgement. 

VOL. II.— SPRING. 

COSMICAL ARRANGEMENTS. 

General Character of Spring in temperate Climates. Increasing Temperature 
of the Weather, and its Effects. Color and Figure of Bodies. Mountains. Rain. 
Springs, i. Sunday. — Advantages of Vicissitude. Rivers. 

REPRODUCTION OF VEGETABLES. 

Vegetable Soil. Vegetation. Preservation and Distribution of Seeds. Long 
Vitality of Seeds. Developement of Seeds and Plants, ii. Sunday.— ^na^o^-y 
of Nature. The Vital Powers of Plants. Flowers.— Their Form, Color, and 
Fragrance. Their Organs of Reproduction, and their Secretion of Honey. The 
Violet. 

reproduction op animals. 

The Animal Structure. — Cellular Texture — Membranes, Tendons, and Liga- 
ments. Secretion, Digestion, and the Circulation of the Blood, iii. Sunday. — 
^^ The Same Lord over All." The Animal Structure. Gastric Juice. Muscular 
Power. Nature of the Proof of Creative Wisdom derived from the Animal Frame. 
The Lower Orders of Animals. The Higher Orders of Animals. 

INSTINCTS connected WITH THE REPRODUCTION OF ANIMALS. 

General Remarks. Parental Affection. Insects. — Their Eggs. iv. Sunday. 
-On the Uniformittj or Sameness in the Natural and Moral fVorld. Insects.— 
Care of their Offspring, exemplified in Bees and Wasps. The Moth. The Bury- 
ing-Beetle. The Ant. Gall Flies. Deposition of Eggs in the Bodies of Animals, 
and in Insects' Nests. Birds — Their Eggs. Prospective Contrivances, v. Sun- 
day.— On the Domestic Affections. Birds. — Relation of their Bodies to external 
Nature. Pairing. Nest-building. The Grossbealv. The Humming-bird. vi. 
Sunday, — Regeneration. Birds. — Nests of Swallows. Hatching of Eggs, and 
rearing the Brood. Quadrupeds. — The Lion. The Rabbit. Instincts of the Young. 



Man. — Effects of protracted Childhood on the Individual. Effects of protracted 
Childhood on the Parents and on Society, vii. Sunday. — On Christian Love. 

AGRICULTURE. 

The Difference between the Operations of Reason and Instinct, as affording 
Arguments in Favor of the Divine Perfections. Origin of Agricultural Labor. 
Origin of Property in the Soil, and the Division of Ranks. Effects of Property 
in the Soil. Benefits derived from the Principles which Stimulate Agricultural 
Improvement. The Blessings of Labor, viii. Sunday. — Spiritual Training by 
Affliction. Nature of Soils. Formation of Soils. Management of Soils. — Drain- 
ing. Irrigation. Blair-Drummond Moss. Products of the Soil. — Dissemination 
of Plants. IX. Sunday. — The Sower. Dissemination of Plants. — The Cocoa- 
Nut Tree. Mitigation of Seasons occasioned by Cultivation. The Labors of the 
Husbandman wisely distributed over the Year. The Corn Plants.— Their Mys- 
terious Origin. Their Distribution over the Globe. Wheat, x. Sunday. — Sab- 
bath Morning. The Corn-Plants.— Barley, Oats, Rice, Maize, and Millet. 
Leguminous Plants. — Peas and Beans. Esculent Roots. — The Potato. Vegetable 
Substances used for Weaving. The Flax Plant, xi. Sunday. — True Science the 
Handmaid of Religion. Vegetable Substances used for Weaving. The Cotton 
Plant. Vegetable^Substances used for Cordage.— Hemp. Vegetable Substances 
used for Paper. 

anniversary of the death and resurrection of CHRIST. 

The Sacrament of the Supper. The Crucifixion. The Grave, xii. Sunday. 
— The Resurrection. 

Enjoyment equally Distributed. The Enjoyments of the Poor in 
SsBiNG. The Woods. 

retrospective view of the argument. 

The Power and Intelligence of the Creator. The Goodness of the Creator. 
The Use and Deficiency of Natural Religion. 



VOL. III.— SUMMER. 

COSMICAL arrangements. 

I. Sunday.— SMmwier the Perfection of the Year. Increased Heat. Internal 
"Heat of the Earth. Increased Light. Electricity. Clouds. Dew. n. Sun- 
day. — Scriptural Allusions to the Deiv. Adaptations of the Faculties of Living 
Beings to the Properties of Light and Air. 

vegetables. 

Growth of Vegetables. Principles on which Horticulture is founded. History 
of Horticulture. The Turnip. Brassica or Cabbage, iii. Sunday. — Spiritual 
Light. Various Garden Vegetables. Flowers — The Rose. Fruits. Ingrafting. 
The Gooseberry and Currant. The Orchard, iv. Sunday. — Spiritual Soil. Pro- 
ductions of Warm Climates used for Human Food. — The Banana. The Date Palm. 
Trees used for other Purposes than Food. Vegetable Substances used in Tan- 
ning. Vegetable Fixed Oils. Vegetable Oils — Essential and Empyreumatic. 
Vegetable Tallow and Wax. v. Sunday. — Spiritual Ctilture. Vegetable Life 
in the Polar Regions. 

animals. 

Connexion between the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms. The Sensorial Or- 
gans. Sensation and Perception. The Argonaut and Nautilus. The Coral In- 
sect. VI. Sunday. — The Invisible Architect. Insect Transformations — Cocoons 
— The Silk-Worm. Insects— Their Larva State. Their Pupa or Chrysalis State. 
Their Imago or Perfect State. The Building Spider. Spider's Webb. vii. Sun- 
day. — Spiritual Transformation. Insects — Legionary and Sanguine Ants. The 
Lion Ant— The Q,ueen-Bee. Physiological Character of Vertebrated Animals. 
Reptiles— The Tortoise — The Serpent, viii. Sunday. — The Old Serpent. Rep- 
tiles— The Saurian Tribes. Birds— Their Relative Position. The Bill. Their 
Power of Flying. Their Power of Vision. Their Voice. Their Selection of 
Food. IX. Sunday. — The Ascension of Christ. Birds— Their Gregarious Habits. 
Domestic Fowls— The Cock, the Turkey, and the Peacock. The Goose and the 
Duck. Birds of Prej^ — The Vulture. The Eagle. Predaceous Animals— Their 



Offices in Nature, x. Sunday.— CAr/s^ the Judge of the World. Quadrupeds— 
Their Characteristics. Their Bodily Organs. The Bat. The Mouse. Ruminat- 
ing — The Goat and Sheep. Sheep Shearing, xi. Sunday.— C/irtsf, the Good 
Shepherd. Quadrupeds — The Shepherd's Dog. Ruminating — The Cow. Thiclv- 
sltinned — The Hog. The Horse and Ass. The Elephant. Reflections on the 
Domestic Animals, xii. Sunday. — The Destruction of the World, and the 
Renovation of the Human Frame in a Future State. Fishes. Man — His Ex- 
terna] Structure. His Intellectual Powers. His Moral Powers. Physical Effects 
of Climate. Moral Eifects of Climate, xiii. Sunday. — The Confusion of 
Tongues. Man — Human Language. 

Haymaking— Pleasures of Rural Scenery. 

The Variety, Beauty, and Utility of Organized Existences. 

retrospective view of the argument. 
Adaptation. Future Existence. Discipline. 
XIV. Sunday. — The Day of Pentecost — One Language. 



VOL. IV.— AUTUMN. 

PHENOMENA, PRODUCE, AND LABORS OF THE SEASON. 

General Character of Autumn. Autumn in the City. Famine in the beginning 
of Autumn. Autumnal Vegetation. Progress of Vegetation in the Corn Plants. 
Harvest, i. Sunday. Stability of Nature. Gleaning. The Harvest Moon. 
Harvest-Home. Storing of Corn. Birds. — Their State in Autumn. 

THE WOODS. 

Their Autumnal Appearance, ii. Sunday.— T/ie Poivers of the World to come. 
The Woods. Their Uses. Various Kinds and Adaptations of Timber. 
Origin of the Arts. — Food, Clothing, and Shelter. 

HUMAN FOOD. 

Its Principle. The Moral Operation of the Principle. Its Supply not inad- 
equate. III. Sunday. — Christians '■''Members one of another." Provision for 
the future. — Soil still uncultivated. Improved Cultivation. Means now in Ex- 
istence. Vegetable and Animal Food. Fruits— Their Qualities. Drink, iv. 
Sunday.—" The Bread of Life." Milk. Wine. Tea and Coffee. Sugar. The 
Pleasures connected with Food. Comparison between the Food of Savage and 
Civilized Man. v. Sunday. — " Give us this Day our daily Bread." Agriculture 
of the Greeks.— Their Harvest. Agriculture of the Romans. Their Harvest. 
Progress of British Agriculture. Modern Continental Agriculture. 

HUMAN CLOTHING. 

Its Principle. Its Primitive State, vi. Sunday. — The Emptiness of Human 
Attainments. Its Ancient History. Commercial History of the Raw Material. 
The Silk Manufacture.— Its Modern History. History of Mechanical Contrivances 
connected with it. Rearing of the Cocoons, &c. The Cotton Manufacture.— Its 
Foreign History, vii. Sunday. — The Intellectual and Moral Enjoyments of 
Heaven. The Cotton Manufacture. — Its British History. Improvement of Ma- 
chinery. Its American History. — Introduction of Steam Power. The Woollen 
Manufacture. — Its History. The Art of Bleaching. The Art of Dyeing. — Ita 
Origin and Ancient History, viii. Sunday.— TAe Social and Religious Enjoy- 
m.ents of Heaven. The Art of Dyeing. — Its Modern History. Its Chemical 
Principles. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Its Principle. Its original State. — Materials employed. Tools employed. Its 
Modifications by the Influence of Habit and Religion, ix. Sunday. — The Chil- 
dren of the World wiser than the Children of Light. Architecture. — Ancient His- 
tory and Practice.— Egypt. — Thebes. The Pyramids. India. — Excavated Temples. 
Central Asia. — Tower of Babel, or Temple of Belus. Babylon. Nineveh. Petra. 
Greece, x. Sunday. — Divine Strength made perfect in Human Weakness. Rome. 
The Gothic Style. Britain. Bridges. Aqueducts. Railways, xi. Sunday. — An 
Autumnal Sabbath Evening. Prospective Improvement of Locomotive Power. 
Lighthouses — The Eddystone Lighthouse. The Thames Tunnel. 



CLOSE OP AUTUMN. 

Miscellaneous Reflections on Autumnal Appearances. The Landscape at the 
Close of Autumn, xii. Sunday. — The Fall of the Leaf . 

GENERAL SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT. 

Government of the World by General Laws. Government of the World by a 
Particular Providence. Contrast between Savage and Civilized Life, as regards 
the Arts. A s regards Domestic Comforts. As regards Commerce. As regards 
Moral Cultivation, xiii. Sunday. — "TAe Harvest is the End of the World." 



The preceding ten volumes are now ready for delivery ;- 
and they will be followed, with all due despatch, by the 
subjoined, among others, provided they are approved by 
the Board of Education. 

LIFE OF WASHINGTON, (with a portrait, and nu- 
merous engravings,) by the Rev. Charles W. Upham, 
Author of ' the Life of Sir Henry Vane.' 

THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE UNDER DIF- 
FICULTIES ; in two volumes, with Preface and Notes, 
by Francis Wayland, D. D., President of Brown Uni- 
versity. 

THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE UNDER DIF- 
FICULTIES, illustrated by incidents in the Lives of 
American Individuals ; in one volume, with Portraits. 

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY, in two volumes, with illustra- 
tive wood cuts, by Robley Dunglison, M. D., Professor 
of the Institutes of Medicine in the Jefferson Medical College, 
Philadelphia ; Author of ' Elements of Hygiene,' * The Medi- 
cal Student,' 'Principles of Medical Practice,' Sfc. Sfc. 

CHEMISTRY, with illustrative wood cuts, by Benja- 
min Silliman, M. D., LL. D., Professor of Chemistry, 
Mineralogy, S^c. in Yale College. 

ASTRONOMY, by Dennison Olmsted, Professor of 
JYatural Philosophy and Astronomy in Yale College. 

This work will be a popular treatise on the Science ; it will also enter 
fully into its history, and consider the subject of Natural Theology, so 
far as it is related to Astronomy. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, by Professor Olmsted. 
Both of these works will be very fully illustrated by diagrams and 
wood engravings. 



9 

THE USEFUL ARTS, considered in connexion with 
the Applications of Science ; in two volumes, v/ith many 
cuts, by Jacob Bigelow, M. D., Professor of Mateina 
JM[edica in Harvard University, Author of ' the Elements of 
Technology,^ Sfc. S^c. 

We subjoin a summary of the Topics discussed in the several chap- 
ters of this Important Work, that its nature and objects may be the 
more clearly understood. 

CHAPTER I. 

Outline of the History of the Arts in Ancient and Modern Times. 

Arts of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Jews, Hindoos, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, 
Dark Ages, Modern Times, Nineteenth Century. 

CHAPTER II. 

Of the Materials used in the Arts. 

Materials from the Mineral Kingdom — Stones and Earths — Marble, Granite, 
Sienite, Freestone, Slate, Soapstone, Serpentine, Gypsum, Alabaster, Chalk, 
Fluor Spar, Flint, Porphyry, Buhrstone, Novaculite, Precious Stones, Emery, 
Lead, Pumice, Tufa, Peperino, Tripoli, Clay, Asbestus, Cements, Limestone, 
Puzzolana, Tarras, Other Cements — Maltha. Metals — Iron, Copper, Lead, Tin, 
Mercury, Gold, Silver, Platina, Zinc, Antimony, Bismuth, Arr^enic, Manganese, 
Nickel. Combustibles, &c— Bitumen, Amber, Coal, Anthracite, Graphite, Peat, 
Sulphur, Materials from the Vegetable Kingdom — "Wood, Bark, Oak, Hickory, 
Ash, Elm, Locust, Wild Cherry, Chestnut, Beech, Basswood, Tulip Tree, Maple, 
Birch, Button Wood, Persimmon, Black Walnut, Tupelo, Pine, Spruce, Hemlock, 
White Cedar, Cypress, Larch, Arbor Vitae, Red Cedar, Willow, Mahogany, 
Boxwood, Lignum Vitse, Cork, Hemp, Flax, Cotton, Turpentine, Caoutchouc, 
Oils, Resins, Starch, Gum. Materials from the Animal Kingdom — Skins, Hair, 
and Fur, Q,uills and Feathers, Wool, Silk, Bone and Ivory, Horn, Tortoise Shell, 
Whale Bone, Glue, Oil, Wax, Phosphorus. Materials used in Painting, Dyeing, 
and Varnishing. 

CHAPTER III. 

Of the Form and Strength of Materials. 

Modes of Estimation, Stress and Strain, Resistance, Extension, Compression, 
Lateral Strain, Stiffness, Tubes, Strength, Place of Strain, Incipient Fracture, 
Shape of Timber, Torsion, Limit of Bulk, Practical Remarks. 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Preservation of Materials. 

Stones, Metals, Organic Substances, Temperature, Dryness, Wetness, Antisep- 
tics. Timber — Felling, Seasoning. Preservation of Timber. — Preservation of 
Animal Texture— Embalming, Tanning, Parchment, Catgut, Gold Beater's Skin. 
Specimens in Natural History — Appert's Process. 

CHAPTER V. 

Of Dividing and Uniting Materials. 

Cohesion. Modes of Division — Fracture, Cutting Machines, Penetration, Bor- 
ing and Drilling, Turning, Attrition, Sawing, Saw Mill, Circular Saw, Crushing, 
Stamping Mill, Bark Mill, Oil Mill, Sugar Mill, Cider Mill, Grinding, Grist Mill, 
Color Mill. Modes of Union — ^Insertion, Interposition, Binding, Locking, Ce- 
menting, Glueing, Welding, Soldering, Casting, Fluxes, Moulds. 



10 

CHAPTER VI. 
Of Changing the Color of Materials. 

Of Applying Superficial Color — Painting, Colors, Preparation, Application, 
Crayons, Water Colors, Distemper, Fresco, Encaustic Painting, Oil Painting, 
Varnishing, Japanning, Polishing, Lacquering, Gilding. Of Changing Intrinsic 
Color — Bleaching, Photogenic Drawing, Dyeing, Mordants, Dyes, Calico Printing. 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Arts of Writing and Printing. 

Letters. Invention of Letters, Arrangement of Letters, Writing Materials, 
Papyrus, Herculaneum, Manuscripts, Parchment, Paper, Instruments, Ink, Copy 
ing Machines, Printing, Types, Cases, Sizes, Composing, Imposing, Signatures, 
Correcting the Press, Press Work, Printing Press, Stereotyping, Machine Print- 
ing. History. 

CHAPTER Vin, 
Arts of Designing and Painting. 

Divisions, Perspective, Field of Vision, Distance and Foreshortening, Defini- 
tions, Plate II — Problems, Instrumental, Perspective, Mechanical Perspective, 
Perspectographs, Projections, Isometrical Perspective, Chiaro Oscuro, Light and 
Shade, Association, Direction of Light, Reflected Light, Expression of Shape. 
Eyes of a Portrait — Shadows, Aerial Perspective, Coloring, Colors, Shades, Tone, 
Harmony, Contrast, Remarks, 

CHAPTER IX. 

Arts of Engraving and Lithography. 

Engraving, Origin, Materials, Instruments, Styles, Line, Engraving, Medal 
Ruling, Stippling, Etching, Mezzo-tinto, Aqua Tinta, Copperplate Printing, Col- 
ored Engravings, Steel Engraving, Wood Engraving. Lithography — Principles, 
Origin, Lithographic Stones, Preparation, Lithographic Ink and Chalk, Mode of 
Drawing, Etching the Stone, Printing, Printing Ink. Remarks. 

CHAPTER X. 

Of Sculpture, Modelling, and Casting. 

Subjects — Modelling, Casting in Plaster, Bronze Casting, Practice of Sculpture, 
Materials, Objects of Sculpture, Gem Engraving, Cameos, Intaglios, Mosaic, 
Scagliola. 

CHAPTER XI. 
Of Architecture and Building. 

Architecture— Elements, Foundations, Column, Wall, Lintel, Arch, Abutments, 
Arcade, Vault, Dome, Plate I, Roof, Styles of Building, Definitions, Measures, 
Drawings, Restorations, Egyptian Style, The Chinese Style, The Grecian Style, 
Orders of Architecture — Doric Order, Ionic Order, Corinthian Order, Caryatides, 
Grecian Temple, Grecian Theatre, Remarks, Plate IV, Roman Style, Tuscan 
Order, Roman Doric, Roman Ionic, Composite Order, Roman Structures, Re- 
marks, Plate V, Greco-Gothic Style, Saracenic Style, Gothic Style, Definitions, 
Plate VI, Plate VII, Application. 

CHAPTER XII. 

Arts of Heating and Ventilation. 

Production of Heat— Fuel, Weight of Fuel, Combustible Matter of Fuel, Water 
in Fuel, Charcoal, Communication of Heat, Radiated and Conducted Heat, Fire 
in the Open Air, Fire Places, Admission of Cold Air, Open Fires, Franklin Stove, 
Rmnford Fire Place, Double Fire Place, Coal Grate, Anthracite Grate, Burns' 
Grate, Building a Fire, Furnaces, Stoves, Russian Stove, Cockle, Cellar Stoves, 
and Air Flues, Heating by Water, Heating by Steam, Retention of Heat, Causes 
of Loss, Crevices, Chimneys, Entries and Sky Lights, Windows, Ventilation, Oh- 
jects, Modes, Ventilators, Culverts, Smoky Rooms, Damp Chimneys, Large Fire 



11 

Places, Close Rooms, Contiguous Doors, Short Chimneys, Opposite Fire Places, 
Neighboring Eminences, Turncap, &c.. Contiguous Flues.' Burning of Smoke, 

CHAPTER XIII, 

Arts of Illumination. 

Flame — Support of Flame, Torches and Candles, Lamps, Reservoirs, Astral 
Lamp, Hydrostatic Lamps, Automaton Lamp, Mechanical Lamps, Fountain Lamp, 
Argand Lamp, Reflectors, Hanging of Pictures, Transparency of Flame, Glass 
Shades, Sinunibral Lamp, Measurement of Light, Gas Lights, Coal Gas, Oil Gas, 
Gasometer, Portable Gas Lights, Safety Lamp, Lamp without Flame, Modes of 
procuring Light. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Arts of Locomotion. 

Motion of Animals, Inertia, Aids to Locomotion, Wheel Cariage=i. Wheels, Rol- 
lers, Size of Wheels, Line of Traction, Broad Whf^els, Forn? of Wheels, Axletrees, 
Springs, Attaching of Horses, Highways, Roads, Pavements, McAdum Roads, 
Bridges, 1, Wooden Bridges, 2, Stone Bridges, 3, Cast Iron Bridges, 4, Suspen- 
sion Bridges, 5, Floating Bridges, Rail Roads, Edge Railway, Tram Road, Single 
Rail, Passings, Propelling Power, Locomotive Engines, Canals, Embankments, 
Aqueducts, Tunnels, Gates and Weirs, Locks, Boats, Size of Canals, Sailing, Form 
of a Ship, Keel and Rudder, Effect of the Wind, Stability of a Ship, Steam Boats, 
Diving Bell, Submarine Navigation, Aerostation, Balloon, Parachute. 

CHAPTER XV. 

Elements of Machinery. 

Machines, Motion, Rotary or Circular Motion, Band Wheels, Rag Wheels, 
Toothed Wheels, Spiral Gear, Bevel Gear, Crown Wheel, Universal Joint, Per- 
petual Screw, Brush Wheels, Ratchet Wheel., Distant Rotary Motion, Change of 
Velocity, Fusee, Alternate or Reciprocating- Motion, Cams, Crank, Parallel Mo- 
tion, Sun and Planet Wheel, Inclined Wheel, Epicycloidal Wheel, Rack and Seg- 
ment, Rack and Pinion, Belt and Segment, Scapements, Continued Rectilinear 
Motion, Band, Rack, Universal Lever, Screw, Change of Direction, Toggle Joint, 
Of Engaging and Disengaging Machinery, Of Equalizing Motion, Governor, 
Fly Wheel, Friction, Remarks. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Of the Moving Forces used in the Arts. 

Sources of Power, Vehicles of Power, Animal Power, Men, Horses, Water 
Poiuer, Overshot Wheel, Chain Wheel, Undershot Wheel, Back Water, Besant's 
Wheel, Lambert's Wheel, Breast Wheel, Horizontal Wheel, Barker's Mill, Wind 
Power, Vertical Windmill, Adjustment of Sails, Horizontal Windmill, Steam 
Power, Steam, Applications of Steam, By Condensation, By Generation, By Ex- 
pansion, The Steam Engine, Boiler Appendages, Engine, Noncondensing Engine, 
Condensing Engines, Description, Expansion, Engines, Valves, Pistons, Parallel 
Motion, Historical Remarks, Projected Improvements, Rotative Engines, Use of 
Steam at High Temperatures, Use of Vapors of Low Temperature, Gas Engines, 
Steam Carriages, Steam Gun, Gunpowder, Manufacture, Detonation, Force, Pro- 
perties of a Gun, Blasting. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Arts of Conveying Water. 

Of Conducting Water — Aqueducts, Water Pipes, Friction of Pipes, Obstruction 
of Pipes, Syphon, Of Raising Water, Scoop Wheel, Persian Wheel, Noria, Rope 
Pump, Hydreole, Archimedes' Screw, Spiral Pump, Centrifugal Pump, Common 
Pumps, Forcing Pumps, Plunger Pump, Delahire's Pump, Hydrostatic Press, 
Lifting Pump, Bag Pump, Double Acting Pump, Rolling Pump, Eccentric Pump, 
Arrangement of Pipes, Chain Pump, Schemniiz Vessels, or Hungarian Machine, 
Hero's Fountain, Atmospheric Machines, Hydraulic Ram, Of Projecting Water. 
Fountains, Fire Engines, Throwing Wheel. 



12 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Arts of Combining Flexible Fibres. 

Theory of Twisting, Rope Making, Cotton Manufacture, Elementary Inven- 
tions, Batting, Carding. Drawing, Roving, Spinning, Mule Spinning, Warping, 
Dressing, Weaving, Twilling, Double Weaving, Cross Weaving, Lace, Carpeting, 
Tapestry, Velvets, Linens, Woolens.) Felting') Paper Making' 

CHAPTER XIX. 
Arts of Horology. 
Sun Dial, Clepsydra, Water Clock, Clock Work, Maintaining Power, Regulat- 
ing Movement, Pendulum, Balance, Scapement, Description of a Clock, Striking 
Part, Description of a Watch. 

CHAPTER XX. 

Arts of Metallurgy. 

Extraction of Metals, Assaying, Alloys, Gold, Extraction, Cupellation, Parting, 
Cementation, Alloy, Working, Gold Beating, Gilding on Metals, Gold Wire, 
Silvery Extraction, Working, Coining, Plating, Copper, Extraction, Working, 
Brass, Manufacture, Buttons, Pins, Bronze, Z/eaci, Extraction, Manufacture, Sheet 
Lead, Lead Pipes, Leaden Shot, Tin, Block Tin, Tin Plates, Silvering of Mirrors, 
Iron, Smelting, Crude Iron, Casting, Malleable Iron, Forging, Rolling and Slit- 
ting, Wire Drawing, Nail Making, Gun Making, Steel, Alloys of Steel, Case Hard- 
ening, Tempering, Cutlery. 

CHAPTER XXL 

Arts of Vitrification. 

Glass, Materials, Crown Glass, Fritting, Melting, Blowing, Annealing, Broad 
Glass, Flint Glass, Bottle Glass, Cylinder Glass, Plate Glass, Moulding, Pressing, 
Cutting, Stained Glass, Enamelling, Artificial Gems, Devitrification, Reaumur's 
Porcelain, Crystallo-Ceramie, Glass Thread, Remarks. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

Arts of Induration by Heat. 

Bricks, Tiles, Terra Cotta, Crucibles, Pottery, Operations, Stone Ware, White 
Ware, Throwing, Pressing, Casting, Burning, Printing, Glazing, China Ware, 
European Porcelain, Etruscan Vases. 

A FAMILIAR TREATISE ON THE CONSTITU- 
TION OF THE UNITED STATES, by the Hon. Judge 
Story, LL. D., Author of ' Commentaries on the Constitu- 
tion,' <S|'c. 

LIFE OF DR. FRANKLIN. 

SELECTIONS FROM THE WRITINGS OF 
FRANKLIN, by Jared Sparks, LL. D., Professor of His- 
tory in Harvard University, Author of ' the Life and Writings 
of Washington,' ' the Life and Writings of Franklin,' S^c .^c. 

CHRISTIANITY AND KNOWLEDGE, by the Rev. 
Royal Robbins. 

The design of this Work is to show what Christianity has done for 
the human intellect, and what that has done for Christianity. 



13 

THE LORD OF THE SOIL, OR, PICTURES OF 
AGRICULTURAL LIFE ; by Rev. Warren Burton, 
Author of The District School as it Was,' «^c. Sfc. 

SCIENCE AND THE ARTS, by the Rev. Alonzo 

Potter, D. D., Professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric, 
in Union College, Schenectady, JY. Y. 

The design of this Work is to call attention to the fact that the Arts 
are the result of intelligence — that they have, each one its principles 
or theory — that these principles are furnished by Science, and that he, 
therefore, who would understand the Arts, must know something of 
Science ; while, on the other hand, he who would see the true power 
and worth of Science ought to study it in its applications. The work- 
will be made up o^ facts, illustrating and enforcing these views — so ar- 
ranged as to exhibit the invariable connexion between processes in Art, 
and laws in JVature. The importance of such a work requires no 
comment. 

AGRICULTURE, by the Hon. Judge Buel, of Albany, 
Editor of ' the Cultivator. ' 

This Work is intended as an aid to the Young Farmer, and from 
the known character of the gentleman who has it in hand, there can be 
no doubt but that it will be executed in a highly satisfactory manner. 
The following, among other subjects, will be therein treated of, viz. 

1. The Importance of Agriculture to a Nation. 

2. Improvement in our Agriculture practicable and necessary. 

3. Some of the principles of the new and improved Husbandry. 

4. Agriculture considered as an Employment. 

5. Earths and Soils. 

6. Improvement of the Soil. 

7. Analogy betvs^een Animal and Vegetable Nutrition. 

8. Further Improvement of the Soil. 

9. " *' by Manures, Animal and Vegetable. 

10. " " by Mineral Manures. 

11. Principles and Operations of Draining. 

12. Principles of Tillage. 

13 Operations of Tillage, &c. &c. 

Due notice will also be taken of alternating crops, root husbandry, mixed hus- 
bandry, the management of pasture and meadow lands, the garden, orchard, &c. 

Cuts, illustrative of the various operations spoken of and recommended, will 
be given. 

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, by Charles T. 
Jackson, M. D., Geological Surveyor of Maine and Rhode 
Island. 

STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES, by 
George Tucker, Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Uni- 
versity of Virginia, tduthor of ^ the Life of Jefferson, ' <Src. Sfc. 



14 

AMERICAN TREES AND PLANTS, used for medi- 
cinal and economical purposes and employed in the Arts, 
with numerous engravings ; by Professor Jacob Bigelow, 
Author of ' Plants of Boston,^ ' Medical Botany ^^ Sfc. Sfc. 

MORAL EFFECTS OF INTERNAL IMPROVE- 
MENTS, by Robert Rantoul, Jr., Esq. 

LIVES OF THE REFORMERS, by Rev. Romeo El- 
ton, Professor of Languages in Brown University. 

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF DISTINGUISH- 
ED FEMALES, by Mrs. Emma C. Embury, of Brooklyn, 
JV. F. 

SKETCHES OF AMERICAN CHARACTER, by 
Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, Editor of ' the Ladies' Book,' Author 
of the ^Ladies'' Wreath,' ' Flora's Interpreter,' Sfc. 8^c. 

DO RIGHT AND HAVE RIGHT, by Mrs. Almira 
H. Lincoln Phelps, Principal of the Literary Department 
of the Young Ladies' Seminary, at West Chester, Pa., 
Jormerly of the Troy Seminary, JY. Y., Author of 'Familiar 
Lectures on Botany,' 'Female Student,' S^c. 

The object of this Work may be gathered from the following re- 
marks of Mrs. Phelps. " A popular work on the principles of law, with 
stories illustrating these principles, might be very profitable to people 
in common life, as well as to children. The ward cheated by a guard- 
ian, the widow imposed on by administrators or executors, the wife 
abandoned by a husband, with whom she had trusted her paternal in- 
heritance, the partner in business, overreached by his crafty associate, 
for want of a knowledge of the operations of the law, — all these might 
be exhibited in such a way as to teach the necessity of legal knowledge 
to both sexes, and to all ages and classes." 

SCENES IN THE LIFE OF JOANNA OF SICILY, 
by Mrs. E. F. Ellet, of Columbia, S. C. 

This is written with a view to young readers, and for the purpose of 
illustrating important historical events. 

The Publishers have also in preparation for this Series, 
a History of the United States, and of other Countries, a 
History of the Aborigines of our Country, a History of 
Inventions, Works on Botany, Natural History, &c. &c. 
Many distinguished writers, not here mentioned, have been 
engaged, whose names will be in due time announced, 
although at present, we do not feel at liberty to make them 
public. 



15 

Among the works prepared, and in a state of forward- 
ness, for the Juvenile Series are the following, viz. 

MEANS AND ENDS, OR SELF TRAINING, by Miss 
Caroline Sedgwick, Author of ' The Poor Rich Marij 
and Rich PoorMan,^ ' Live and Let Live,^ ' Home,^ S^c. Sfc. 

NEW-ENGLAND HISTORICAL SKETCHES, by 
N. Hawthorne, Author of' Twice Told Tales,^ ^c. 

CONVERSATIONS AND STORIES BY THE 
FIRE SIDE, by Mrs. Sa^rah J. Hale, 

FAILURE NOT RUIN, by Horatio G. Hale, A. M. 

TALES IN PROSE, blending instruction with amuse- 
ment ; by Miss Mary E. Lee, of Charleston, S. C. 

PICTURES OF EARLY LIFE :— Stories; each in- 
culcating some moral lesson ; by Mrs. Emma C. Embury, 
of Brooklyn, JV. Y. 

FREDERICK HASKELL'S VOYAGE ROUND 
THE WORLD, by H. G. Hale, A. M., Philologist to 
the Exploring Expedition. 

BIOGRAPHY FOR THE YOUNG, by Miss E. Rob- 
bins, Author of' American Popular Lessons,^ Sequel to the 
same, Sfc. 

THE WONDERS OF NATURE, by A. J. Stansbury, 
Esq., of Washington City ; illustrated by numerous cuts. 

WORKS OF ART, by the same ; illustrated by numer- 
ous cuts, 

PLEASURES OF TASTE, and other Stories select- 
ed from the Writings of Jane Taylor, with a sketch of her 
life, (and a likeness,) by Mrs. S. J. Hale. 

SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF MRS. 
BARBAULD, tvith a Life and Portrait. 

SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF MARIA 
EDGEWORTH, icith a Life and Portrait. 

SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF MRS. 
SHERWOOD, with a Life and Portrait. 

SELECTIONS FRpM THE WORKS OF DR. 
AIKIN, with a Sketch of his Life, by Mrs. Hale. 

CHEMISTRY FOR BEGINNERS, by Benjamin Sil- 
LiMAN, Jr., Assistant in the Department of Chemistry, Min- 
eralogy, and Geology in Yale College ; aided by Professor 

SiLLlMAN. 



16 

MY SCHOOLS AND MY TEACHERS, by Mrs. A. 
H. Lincoln Phelps. 

The author's design, in this work, is to describe the Common Schools 
as they were in New-England at the beginning of the present century ; 
to delineate the peculiar characters of different Teachers ; and to give 
a sketch of her various school companions, with then- progress in after 
life, endeavoring thereby to show that the child, while at school, is 
forming the future man, or woman. 

It is not the intention of the Publishers to drive these 
works through the Press with a railroad speed, in the hope 
of securing the market, by the multiplicity of the publica- 
tions cast upon the community; they rely for patronage, 
upon the intrinsic merits of the works, and consequently 
time must be allowed the writers to mature and systematize 
them. The more surely to admit of this, the two Series 
will be issued in sets of five and ten volumes at a time. 
Besides the advantage above alluded to, that will result 
from such an arrangement, it will place The School Li- 
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The works will be printed on paper and with type ex- 
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The larger Series will be furnished to Schools, Academies, 
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can be procured at home or abroad, bearing in mind their 
high intellectual character, and the style of their mechanical 
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The Publishers solicit orders from School Committees, 
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and wish particular directions how, to whom, and to what 
place the books shall be forwarded. 

Annexed are Specimen Pages of the two Series. 



THE ARTERIES, 



271 




carried into the reservoir, and they fill it half full of water, 
C ; the mouth of the pipe, D, which is to convey away 
the water, reaches into the water in the reservoir. As 
the water rises, the air is compressed : so that, although 
the pumps act alternately, the elasticity of the contained 
air acts uninterruptedly in pressing on the surface of the 
water, and raising it by the tube, D, in an equable stream. 
The elasticity of the contained air, fills up the interval 
between the actions of tHe pumps, and admits of no in- 
terruption to the force with which the water is propelled 
upwards. 

Surely these are sufficient indications of the necessity 
of three powers acting in propeUing the blood from the 
heart. The first, is a sudden and powerful action of 
the ventricle : the second, is a contraction of the artery, 
somewhat similar, excited by its distention : the third, 
though a property independent of hfe, is a power permit- 
ting no interval or alternation ; it is the elasticity of the 
coats of the artery : and these three powers, duly adjust- 
ed, keep up a continued stream in the blood-vessels. It 
is true, that when an artery is wounded, the blood flows 



308 



NATURAL THEOLOGY 



The superior sagacity of animals which hunt their 
prey, and which, consequently, depend for their liveli- 
hood upon their nose, is well known in its use ; but not 
at all known in the organization which produces it. 

The external ears of beasts of prey, of Hons, tigers, 
wolves, have their trumpet-part, or concavity, standing 
forward, to seize the sounds which are before them — 
viz., the sounds of the animals which they pursue or 
watch. The ears of animals of flight are turned back- 
ward, to give notice of the approach of their enemy from 
behind, whence he may steal upon them unseen. This 
is a critical distinction, and is mechanical ; but it may be 
suggested, and, I think, not without probabiHty, that it 
is the effect of continual habit. 




[Heads of the hare and wolf, showing the different manner 
in which the ears are turned. — Am. Ed.] 

The eyes of animals which follow their prey by night, 
as cats, owls, &c., possess a faculty not given to those 
of other species, namely, of closing the pupil entirely. 



OF COLUMBUS. ^ 61 

It is difficult even for the imagination to conceive the 
feehngs of such a man, at the moment of so subhme a 
discovery. What a bewildering crowd of conjectures 
must have thronged upon his mind, as to the land which 
lay before him, covered with darkness. That it was 
fruitful was evident from the vegetables which floated 
from its shores. He thought, too, that he perceived in 
the balmy air the fragrance of aromatic groves. The 
moving light which he had beheld, proved that it was the 
residence of man. But what were its inhabitants.'* Were 
they like those of other parts of the globe ; or were they 
some strange and monstrous race, such as the imagina- 
tion in those times was prone to give to all remote and 
unknown regions? Had he come upon some wild island, 
far in the Indian seas; or was this the famed Cipango 
itself, the object of his golden fancies? A thousand 
speculations of the kind must have swarmed upon him, 
as he watched for the night to pass away; wondering 
whether the morning light would reveal a savage wilder- 
ness, or dawn upon spicy groves, and glittering fanes, and 
gilded cities, and all the splendors of oriental civihzation. 



CHAPTER XI. 

First Landing of Columbus in the J^ew World. — Cruise, 
among the Bahama Islands. — Discovery of Cuba and 
Hispaniola. [1492.] 

When the day dawned, Columbus saw before him a 
level and beautiful island, several leagues in extent, of 
great freshness and verdure, and covered with trees like 
a continual orchard. Though every thing appeared in 
the wild luxuriance of untamed nature, yet the island was 
evidently populous, for the inhabitants were seen issuing 
from the woods, and running from all parts to the shore. 
They were all perfectly naked, and from their attitudes 
6 I. 



286 



A VISIT TO PALOS. 



residence of Martin Alonzo or Vicente Yafiez Pinzon, 
in the time of Columbus. 




We now arrived at the church of St. George, in the 
porch of which Columbus first proclaimed to the inhabi- 
tants of Palos the order of the sovereigns, that they 
should furnish him with ships for his great voyage of dis- 
covery. This edifice has lately been thoroughly repaired, 
and, being of sohd mason-work, promises to stand for 
ages, a monument of the discoverers. It stands outside 
of the village, on the brow of a hill, looking along a Httle 
valley toward the river. The remains of a Moorish 
arch prove it to have been a mosque in former times ; 
just above it, on the crest of the hill, is the ruin of a 
Moorish castle. 

I paused in the porch, and endeavored to recall the 
interesting scene that had taken place there, when Co- 
lumbus, accompanied by the zealous friar Juan Perez, 
caused the public notary to read the royal order in pres- 
ence of the astonished alcaldes, regidors, and alguazils ; 
but it is difficult to conceive the consternation that must 
have been struck into so remote a little community, by 
this sudden apparition of an entire stranger among them, 
bearing a command that they should put their persons 
and ships at his disposal, and sail with him away into the 
unknown wilderness of the ocean. 

The interior of the church has nothing remarkable, 



THE COTTON PLANT. 335 

work of creation and the work of grace revealed in the 
word of God. Proofs corroborative of the authenticity 
of the Bible, have been gathered from those very sources 
which formerly were applied to by the skeptic for his 
sharpest weapons ; and at this moment, (such is the secu- 
rity with which Christianity may regard the progress of 
knowledge,) there does not exist in our own country, nor, 
so far as I am aware, in any other, one philosopher of 
eminence who has ventured to confront Christianity and 
philosophy, as manifestly contradictory. May we not 
venture to hope that, in a very short time, the weak darts 
of minor spirits, which from time to time are still permit- 
ted to assail our bulwarks, will be also quenched, and the 
glorious Gospel, set free from all the oppositions of sci- 
ence falsely so called, shall walk hand in hand over the 
earth with a philosophy always growing in humility, be- 
cause every day becoming more genuine. C. J. C. D. 



TWELFTH WEEK— MONDAY. 

VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES USED FOR WEAVING. THE COTTON- 

PLANT. 

The cotton-plant, another vegetable substance, exten- 
sively used in manufactures, differs materially from that 
already described, in its properties, appearance, and hab- 
its. Instead of being generally diffused over temperate 
climates, it belongs more properly to the torrid zone, and 
the regions bordering on it ; and instead of being chiefly 
confined to one species, as to its pecuhar and useful qual- 
ities, its varieties seem scarcely to have any limit, extend- 
ing from an herb* of a foot or two in height, to a treef 

* Gossypium herbaceum, or common herbaceous cotton-plant. 

t Bombax ceiba, or American silk cotton-tree. — [The Baobab, or 
Adansonia digitata, an enormous and long-lived tree, also belongs to 
this family. But it is incorrect to call these trees " varieties " of the 
cotton plant. They are nearly allied to it, indeed, but they stand in dif- 
ferent divisions of the great order of malvacecz, or mallows ; and the 
downy contents of their pods are of little use compared with true cotton. 
—Am. Ed.] 



378 GLOSSARY. 

Coup de mairij (French terra,) a military expression, denoting an in- 
stantaneous, sudden, unexpected attack upon an enemy. 

Dulce et decorum, est pro pairia mori, It is delightful and glorious to 
die for one's country. 

EjlJigies Seb. Caboti Angli filii Joannis Caboti militis aurati. As 
will be seen by the text, where this inscription occurs, (p. 121,) 
there is an ambiguity in the application of the last two words. The 
other part of the inscription, may be rendered, " the portrait (or 
likeness) of Sebastian Cabot, of England, son of John Cabot." 
Milesy or militis, means, literally, a warrior, or soldier, or officer 
of the army ; and in the English law, sometimes indicates a knight. 
Auratus, or aurati, means gilt, gilded, or decked with gold. Eques 
means a horseman, or knight, who was frequently called eques aura- 
tus, because, anciently, none but knights were allowed to beautify 
their armor, and other habiliments, with gold. 

En jnasse, in a body, in the mass, altogether. 

Eques, and Eques auratus. See Effigies. 

Fasciae, {ip\. fascines,) a bundle of fagots, or small branches of trees, 
or slicks of wood, bound together, for filling ditches, &c. 

Formula, {p\. formula:,) a prescribed form or order. 

Geoicetlc, relating to the art of measuring surfaces. 

Gramina, grasses. 

Green Mountain Boys, a term applied, during the Revolutionary War, 
to the inhabitants of Vermont, (Green Mountain,) particularly those 
who were in the army. 

Gymnotus, the electric eel. 

Habeas Corpus, "you may have the body." A writ, as it has been 
aptly termed, of personal freedom ; which secures, to any individual, 
who may be imprisoned, the privilege of having his cause imme- 
diately removed to the highest court, that the judges may decide 
whether there is ground for his imprisonment or not. 

Hipparckus, a celebrated mathematician and astronomer of Nicsea, in 
Bithynia, who died 125 years before the Christian era. He was 
the first after Thales and Sulpicius Callus, who found out the exact 
time of eclipses, of which he made a calculation for 600 years. He is 
supposed to have been the first, who reduced astronomy to a science, 
and prosecuted the study of it systematically. 

Loyalists, Royalists, Refugees, and Tories. In the times of the Revo- 
lution, these terms were used as technical or party names, and were 
sometimes applied indiscriminately. Strictly speaking, however, 
Loyalists, were those whose feelings or opinions were in favor of 
the mother country, but who declined taking part in the Revolu- 
tion ; Royalists, were those who preferred or favored, a kingly gov- 
ernment ; Refugees, were those who fled from the country and 
sought the protection of the British ; and Tories, were those, who 
actually opposed the war, and took part with the enemy, aiding 
them by ail the tneans in their power. 

Magnetic Variation, a deviation of the needle in the mariner's com- 
pass, from an exact North and South direction. 

Master-at-arms, an officer appointed to take charge of the small arms 
in a ship of war, and to teach the officers and crew the exercise of 



18mo. pages. 

MARY BOND IN A SICK-ROOM. 129 

ring it all the time. Of course I do not make it 
every 'time it is wanted, for sometimes, when I 
want it extra good, I boil and stir it a full hour, 
and then I put it away in a close vessel and in a 
cool place. For Raymond, or for any one get- 
ting well, and free from fever, I put in a third 
wheat flour, and half milk. You see it is a very 
simple process, sir." 

'' Yes — simple enough. But it is to these 
simple processes that people will not give their 
attention," 

Mary had the happiness of seeing Raymond 
sitting up before their parents returned, and when 
they drove into the great gate, and up the lane, 
he was in his rocking-chair by the window, watch- 
ing for them. They had heard of his illness, and 
were most thankful to find him so far recovered. 
The Doctor chanced to be present when they 
arrived. '' O, Doctor !" said Mrs. Bond, after 
the first greetings were over, "how shall I ever 
be grateful enough to you .'"' 

'' I have done very little, Mrs. Bond," replied 
the honest Doctor. " In Raymond's case, medi- 
cine could do httle or nothing. Nature had been 
overtasked, and wanted rest and soothing. Under 
God, Raymond owes his recovery to Mary." 

"O, mother!" exclaimed Raymond, bursting 
into tears, '' she is the best sister in the w^orld !" 

" She is the best sister in the two worlds !" 
cried little Grace Bond, a child of five years old. 

A source of true comfort and happiness is such 
a child and such a sister as Mary Bond ! — a light 



138 THE LOST CHILDREN. 

US, as soon as we are missed ; let us keep on 
and perhaps we may find some other path." 

The poor children proceeded on their course, 
unconscious that every step was taking them deep- 
er into the forest, until, completely bewildered by 
the thick darkness, and overcome with fatigue, they 
could go no further. " Let us pray to God, and 
then we can lie down, and die in peace," said 
George ; and the innocent children knelt down on 
the fallen leaves, and lisped their simple prayers, 
as they were accustomed to do at their mother's 
side. 

"We must try to find some shelter, George," 
said Kate, as they arose from their knees, " this 
chill air will kill you, even if we escape the wild 
beasts." As she spoke, the light of a young 
mooij which faintly illumined the depths of the 
wood, enabled her to discover a hollow log lying 
near. Tearing off some branches from the brittle 
hemlock tree, she piled them around the log, in 
such a manner, as to form a sort of penthouse ; 
and, placing George within the more effectual 
shelter of the log, she lay down by his side. Worn 
widi fatigue, notwithstanding their fears, the chil- 
dren soon fell into a profound sleep ; and the 
beams of the morning sun, shining through the 
branches which formed their covering, first awoke 
them from their peaceful slumbers. 

Their little hearts swelled with gratitude to the 
merciful God, who had preserved them through 
the perils of the night, and the morning hymn which 
was wont to resound within the walls of their 



